A  JOURNAL  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Edited  by 

THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

and  published  in  conjunction  with 

THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  JOURNAL  AND 
SUPPLEMENTARY  EDUCATIONAL  MONOGRAPHS 


! 

Voi.  XXVI  JANUARY  1918  No.  1 


Foreign  Languages  and  Mathematics 
as  Requirement  for  American 
Colleges  and  Universities 

E.  E.  Lewis 

The  Social  Core  of  the  High-School 
Curriculum 

Herbert  G.  Lull 

Elimination  from  the  Public  Second¬ 
ary  Schools  of  the  United  States 

Frank  G.  Pickell  and  B.  F.  Winkelblech 

An  Experiment  in  Socialization 

Alexander  C.  Roberts 

Technique  of  Supervised  Study 

Eugene  D.  Merriman 

The  Numerical  Problem  in  Physics 

ZX  P,  Randall,  J.  C.  Chapman,  and  C.  W.  Sutton 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  U.S.A. 


THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  London  and  Edinburgh 
THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA,  Tokyo,  Osaka,  Kyoto.  Fukuoka.  Sendai 
THE  MISSION  BOOK  COMPANY,  Shanghai 


PUBLICATIONS  EDITED  BY  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


JOINT  EDITORIAL  COMMITTEE 

CHARLES  HUBBARD  JUDD,  Chairman 

Articles  and  Editorials  of  The  School  Review  Articles  and  Editorials  of  The  Elementar- 

ROLLO  LA  VERNE  LYMAN  School  Journal 

FRANKLIN  WINSLOW  JOHNSON  FRANK  NUGENT  FREEMAN 

HARRY  ORRIN  GILLET 


Reviews 

HAROLD  ORDWAY  RUGG 
ROLLA  MILTON  TRYON 


Supplementary  Educational  Monographs 
WILLIAM  SCOTT  GRAY 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 

ADVISORY  BOARD 

WILLIAM  McANDREW,  New  York  City  H.  V.  CHURCH,  Cicero,  Illinois 

JEROME  O.  CROSS, , Pasadena,  California  ALEXANDER  INGLIS,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts 

I.  M.  ALLEN,  Springfield,  Illinois  E.  A.  MILLER,  Oberlin,  Ohio 

H.  C.  MORRISON,  Concord,  New  Hampshire  FRED  C.  AYER,  Seattle,  Washington 

H.  L.  MILLER,  Madison,  Wisconsin 


Vol.  XXVI  CONTENTS  FOR  JANUARY  *9*8  No.  t 

\  Foreign  Languages  and  Mathematics  as  Requirement  for  Admission  to,  and  Graduation  from, 

American  Colleges  and  Universities  . E.  E.  Lewis  1 

^The  Social  Core  of  the  High-School  Curriculum  . Herbert  G.  Lull  7 

^Elimination  from  the  Public  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States 

Frank  G.  Pickell  and  B.  F.  Winkelblech  18 
^An  Experiment  in  Socialization  --------  Alexander  C.  Roberts  25 

Technique  of  Supervised  Study  . . Eugene  D.  Merriman  35 

jXhe  Place  of  the  Numerical  Problem  in  High- School  Physics 

D.  P.  Randall,  J.  C.  Chapman,  and  C.  W.  Sutton  39 


\j 


Educational  News  and  Editorial  Comment 


Department  of  Superintendence  at  Atlantic  City,  February  25— March  2;  Safeguarding  War  Appeals;  College 
Men  and  the  War;  Changes  in  College  Life;  The  Gary  System  in  New  York;  The  Passing  of  Literary  Dictators; 
Penny  Lunches  in  Chicago;  Letting  Down  the  Bars  and  Raising  Efficiency;  Supreme  and  Super  Superintendents; 
Illinois  Schoolboys  and  the  Farms;  Drill  and  Individual  Differences;  A  Recommendation  to  Principals;  Correla¬ 
tion  of  English  and  Content  Subjects. 


Educational  Writings: 

I.  Recent  Literature  in  the  Field  of  Vocational  Education  and  Guidance 

Frank  M.  Leavitt  and  Margaret  Taylor  58 
II.  Comment  on  Current  Educational  Writings . -  64 

W.  H  Allen  and  C.  G.  Pearse,  Self-Surveys  by  Teacher  Training  Schools. — W.  H.  Allen,  Self-Surveys  by  College 
and  University. — F.  N.  Freeman,  How  Children  Learn. — Delos  Fall,  Science  for  Beginners,  A  First  Book  in 
General  Science. — Hutton  Webster,  Readings  in  Mediaeval  and  Modem  History. — Milton  Bennion,  Citizenship, 

An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics. — Ephraim  Emerton,  The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Europe,  1250-1450. — D.  E. 

,  Weglein,  The  Correlation  of  Abilities  of  High-School  Pupils. 

Ill-  Current  Educational  Publications  Received  in  November  -  -  -  71 


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Entered  as  second-class  matter,  January  16, 1896,  at  the  Post-office  at  Chicago,  Illinois,  under  the  Act  of  March  3,  1879. 


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Masters  and  Students  of  Pedagogy 

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The  Reorganization  of  Our  Schools 

SOME  EDUCATIONAL  POSTULATES  AND  PRACTICAL 
SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

By  FREDERIC  W.  SANDERS,  A.M.  (Harvard),  Ph.D.  (Chicago) 

Sometime  Member  of  the  Territorial  Board  of  Education  of  New  Mexico,  President  of 
the  New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Principal  of  the  Lincoln 
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ORAL  ENGLISH 

A  satisfactory  correlation  of  Oral  English  with  certain  of  the  regular  composition 
and  literature  courses  of  the  secondary  schools  has  been  effected  by  some  of  the 
leading  high  schools  of  the  United  States  through  the  use  of  the  inexpensive  and 
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The  virtues  claimed  for  this  little  hook  by  those  who  have  put  it  into  the  hands  of  their  pupils  are  these — 
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<1  Instead  of  interfering  with  the  regular  composition  and  literature  work,  it  corre¬ 
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<1  The  book  is  written  by  a  high-school  man  familiar  with  the  high-school  problem 
and  is  soundly  within  the  vocabulary  and  experience  of  high-school  pupils. 

A  pamphlet,  “Aid  in  Oral  English/’  will  be  sent  for  the  asking. 

ELEMENTS  OF  DEBATING  by  LEVERETT  S.  LYON 

x+136  pages ,  i2mo,  cloth;  $1.00,  postage  extra  ( weight  14  oz .) 

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CHICAGO  5822  ELLIS  AVENUE  ILLINOIS 


Established  as  a  Workable  Text 

BARBER’S 

First  Course  in  General  Science 


By  F.  D.  BARBER,  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University, 
M.  L.  FULLER,  Lecturer  on  Meteorology  in  the  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute, 
J.  L.  PRICER,  Professor  of  Biology  in  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  and 
H.  W.  ADAMS,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  same,  vii+607  pp.  $1.25. 


A  close  selection  of  introductions  of  a  new  book  is  often  more 
interesting  and  significant  than  a  long  list  of  all  adoptions.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  few  cities  among  those  which  have  ordered  ,  the  Barber  book 
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the  schools  now  using  it  and  of  the  wide  extent  of  its  use : 


Boston,  Mass. 
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Bridgeport,  Conn. 
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Springfield,  Ill. 
Lansing,  Mich. 
South  Bend,  Ind. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 


J.  T.  Willard,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College:  I  have  read  many  parts  of  it  and  find 
it  an  extremely  interesting  volume  and  one  that  should  be  very  attractive  to  high  school 
students.  It  is  by  far  the  best  publication  on  general  science  that  I  have  yet  seen. 

School  Science  and  Mathematics:  It  is  one  of  the  very  best  books  on  general  science 
that  has  ever  been  published.  The  biological  as  well  as  the  physical  side  of  the  subject  is 
treated  with  great  fairness.  There  is  more  material  in  the  text  than  can  be  well  used  in  one 
year’s  work  on  the  subject.  This  is,  however,  a  good  fault  as  it  gives  the  instructor  a  wide 
range  of  subjects.  The  book  is  written  in  a  style  which  will  at  once  command  not  only  the 
attention  of  the  teacher,  but  that  of  the  pupil  as  well.  It  is  interesting  from  cover  to  cover. 
Many  new  and  ingenious  features  are  presented.  The  drawings  and  halftones  have  been 
selected  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  points  in  the  text,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  at¬ 
tracting  the  pupil  and  holding  his  attention.  There  are  375  of  these  illustrations.  There  is  no 
end  to  the  good  things  which  might  be  said  concerning  this  volume,  and  the  advice  of  the  writer 
to  any  school  board  about  to  adopt  a  text  in  general  science  is  to  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  this  book  before  making  a  final  decision. 


HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

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book  for  Senior  classes  or  for  classes  preparing  to  take  college-entrance  exam¬ 
inations  should  not  fail  to  examine 


Third- Year  Mathematics 
for  Secondary  Schools 

By  ERNST  R.  BRESLICH 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Mathematics,  University  of  Chicago  High  School 


This  book  abounds  in  problems  taken  from  the  entrance  examination 
papers  of  a  number  of  colleges.  These  will  form  a  good  review  of  algebra. 

The  principal  part  of  solid  geometry  is  given  on  pages  239-330.  Chapter 
xv  is  a  syllabus  of  all  the  theorems  of  plane  and  solid  geometry  not  proved 
in  Third-Year  Mathematics ,  and  will  make  an  excellent  basis  for  a  review  of 
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The  major  portions  of  trigonometry  are  in  chapters  ii  and  ix;  logarithms 
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The  advantages  of  having  all  these  subjects  in  the  same 
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book  in  his  future  college  mathematics. 


Third-Year  Mathematics  for  Seconday  Schools 

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Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables 
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FOOD  STUDY 

A  new  high-school  textbook  and  laboratory 
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Religious  Education  Is  a  War  Measure 

Ultimately  the  basic  issues  of  this  war  will  be  settled  for  good  or  ill  by  success 
or)  failure  in  religious  education.  Religious  education  deals  with  life’s 
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motives,  will,  and  habits — it  begins  its  work  at  these  springs  of  conduct. 

The  Religious  Education  Association 

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maintains  a  reference  library-exhibit,  conducts  conferences  and  conventions. 
The  annual  membership  fee  of  $3.00  entitles  one  to  receive  the  magazine  and  to 
all  the  privileges  of  membership. 

The  Religious  Education  Association 

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The  Contingency  of  the  Laws  of  Nature 

By  Emile  Boutroux  of  the  French  Academy.  Translated  by 

Fred.  Rothwell.  With  a  portrait  of  the  author.  Pages,  x,  195. 

Cloth,  $1.50. 

The  two  leading  ideas  of  this  work  are,  first,  that  philosophy 
should  not  confine  itself  to  recombing  eternally  the  concepts  handed 
down  by  our  forerunners,  but  rather  should  come  into  direct  contact 
with  the  realities  of  nature  and  science;  and,  secondly,  that  philo¬ 
sophical  systems,  whether  idealistic,  materialistic  or  dualistic,  regard 
the  laws  of  nature  as  necessary,  and,  consequently,  as  destructive  of 
the  true  life  and  freedom. 

A  natural  law  is  not  a  first  principle,  it  is  a  result;  and  life, 
feeling,  and  liberty  are  realities  whereof  the  comparatively  rigid  forms 
grasped  by  science  are  the  ever  inadequate  manifestations.  Men  can 
act  on  nature  because  nature  is  neither  brute  force  nor  lifeless  thought. 
The  laws  of  nature,  if  necessary,  would  typify  the  rigidity  and  immo¬ 
bility  of  death.  Being  contingent,  they  give  more  dignity  to  life,  a 
greater  incentive  to  rise  in  the  scale  of  being. 


George  Boole’s  Collected  Logical 
Works 

In  two  volumes,  of  which  the  second,  containing  the  LAWS  OF 
THOUGHT,  is  ready.  Pages,  xvi,  448.  Cloth,  $3.00  net  per  vol. 
The  second  volume  contains  a  reprint  of  the  LAWS  OF  THOUGHT 
of  1854,  unaltered  except  that  misprints  are  of  course  corrected. 
Both  volumes  are  provided  with  indexes,  and  the  page-numbers  of 
the  original  publications  are  throughout  inserted  in  square  brackets 
and  heavy  type  at  the  proper  places. 


THE  OPEN  COURT  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

122  SOUTH  MICHIGAN  AVENUE 
CHICAGO 


“How  Do  You  Do, 

Mr.  Riley?” 

“Onct  when  I  was  ist  a  little  girl — only  four  years  old 
— mother  and  I  were  down  town  and  I  saw  you  not  far 
away.  I  broke  away  from  mother,  ran  up  to  you  and 
said,  ‘How  do  you  do,  Mr.  Riley?’  I  shall  never  forget 
the  wonderful  smile  on  your  face  when  you  turned  and 
saw  me,  a  tiny  little  tot.  You  bowed  and  spoke  to  me 
as  though  I  were  a  queen,  and  when  I  told  you  I  knew 
’most  all  of  your  child  rhymes  and  enjoyed  them  very 
much,  you  were  as  pleased  as  if  some  man-of-letters  had 
complimented  you.  That,  Mr.  Riley,  is  one  of 
my  finest  memories.” 

So  wrote  a  grown-up  little  girl  to  James  Whit¬ 
comb  Riley. 

Are  you  giving  your  children  the  precious  mem¬ 
ories  of  the  beautiful  poems?  Will  your  children 
be  able  to  say — “My  mother  read  me  Riley  when 
I  was  a  child — and  ‘The  Raggedy  Man’  and 
‘Little  Orphant  Annie’  have  rejoiced  and  com¬ 
forted  me  all  the  days  of  my  life.” 

JAMES  WHITCOMB  RILEY 

has  passed  on — and  the  grown-up  world  mourns.  In  the 
hearts  of  the  little  children  is  a  void  that  cannot  be  filled 
— but  that  can  be  forgotten  by  the  reading  and  re-reading 
of  these  simple  and  childlike  poems. 

No  more  does  Uncle  Sam’s  postman  stagger  under  the  weight  of 
10,000  letters — the  tribute  of  the  children  of  the  world  to  their  Uncle 
Sidney  (James  Whitcomb  Riley)  on  his  birthday.  Riley  has  passed  on 
but  his  work  lives.  You  can  read  it  to  your  children — and  enrich 
their  lives  and  yours  for  all  time. 

Those  of  us  who  have  missed  things  in  childhood — missed  learning  to  ride  or  to  swim — feel  that  there  is  a 
lack  that  can  never  be  made  up.  Even  more  is  this  so  with  things  of  the  spirit.  The  child  whose  imagination 
has  been  enriched  by  the  beauty  and  charm  of  Riley,  carries  a  treasure  to  old  age — a  treasure  hard  to  get  later  on. 

From  the  little  girl  who  said  she  felt  all  alone  without  him  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who 
pays  him  tribute,  Riley  is  in  all  hearts — big  and  little. 


Riley  is 
the  chil¬ 
dren's  poet 
—  l.ltle  children  and  big 
ones  —  sometimes  called 
grown-ups. 


HIS  HEIRS  DESIRE  ONLY  A  SMALL  ROYALTY 


The  Heirs  of  James  Whitcomb  Riley  came  to  us,  as  the  pub¬ 
lishers  of  Mark  Twain,  and  said  that  they  would  be  glad  to 
reduce  their  royalty  so  that  we  could  place  the  works  of  James 
Whitcomb  Riley  in  the  homes  of  all  those  who  loved  him.  So 
we  are  able  to  make  this  complete  set  of  all  Riley’s  works — 
containing  over  1000  titles  and  a  biographical  sketch  of 
Riley — at  a  very  low  price — for  the  present — a  price  we 
can  pass  on  to  you. 

We  have  planned  a  fitting  form  for  these  books — beautifully 
made — the  easy-to-read,  comfortable  sort  of  books  that  James 
Whitcomb  Riley  would  have  liked.  This  set  is  full  of  luxurious 


and  beautiful  illustrations  by  Howard  Chandler  Christy  and 
Ethel  Franklin  Betts — some  in  full  color — some  in  two  colors, 
and  some  in  black  and  white. 

The  limited  edition  of  Riley’s  complete  works  sold  from  $125 
to  Si 750  a  set.  Yet  you  can  have  your  set  for  less  than  one- 
fifth  the  lowest  price  made  before. 

The  generosity  of  the  Riley  heirs  and  the  re¬ 
sources  of  Harper  and  Brothers  give  you  a  rare  /  HARPER  & 
opportunity.  Don’t  miss  it.  Send  the  /  BROTHERS 
coupon  without  money  for  your  set  on  /  Franklin  Sq  N.Y 


HARPER.  6s  BROTHERS 


approval  to-day. 

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NEW  YORK 


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examination  the 
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1000  titles,  of  Janies 
Whitcomb  Riley,  lOvols., 
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lustrated  in  color  and  black 
and  white  by  Howard  Chandler 
Christy  and  Ethel  Franklin  Betts. 

I  may  return  it  to  you,  at  your  ex¬ 
pense,  if  I  do  not  want  it.  If  I  keep 
e  books  I  will  remit  $1.50  -for  thirteen 
ths-  School  Review 


Address . 

Occupation . . . 

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Making  SCIENCE  HISTORY 


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Education  as  a  Science  and  Scientific  Education 
J.  PAXTON  SIMMONS,  M.A.,  Editor-In-Chief,  Allan  High  School 


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LEWIS  ELHUFF,  Geo.  Westinghouse  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

MISS  CLARA  A.  PEASE,  Hartford  (Conn.)  High  School 

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Truancy  and  INon=Attendance 
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Labor  Legislation  in  Illinois 

By 

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Address  Manager  of  Educ.  Dept. 

OUR  FOOD  SUPPLY  MUST  BE  CONSERVED.  PHYSICIANS, 
nurses,  health  officers,  housewives,  dietitians,  bacteriologists,  special¬ 
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occurrence,  in  the  new  volume 

FOOD  POISONING 

By  EDWIN  OAKES  JORDAN 

Chairman  of  the  Department  of  Hygiene  and  Bacteriology 
The  University  of  Chicago 

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NlirSCS  ^he  frequently  fatal  outcome  of  some  forms  of  food  poisoning — if  vigorous  emergency  measures  are 

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ing  the  possibility  of  infection, 
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HoUSewiveS  ^  ^n^eres*-  to  the  housewife  not  to  waste  food  by  careless  treatment.  To  mention 

_ I  but  one  point:  the  proportion  of  illness  due  to  uncooked,  imperfectly  cooked,  or  raw  food, 

which  could  easily  be  avoided  by  proper  cooking,  is  astonishing.  Professor  Jordan  lays  special  stress  on  this  feature. 
The  particular  foods  involved,  how  they  become  poisonous,  and  how  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  poisoning  are  all 
clearly  explained  in  this  book. 


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As  a  basis  for  a  series  of  lectures  on  the  subject  of  food  poisoning  this  volume  is  of  great 
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The  results  of  various  researches  and  studies,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  will 
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food  poisoning. 


An  hour  or  two  devoted  to  this  interesting  and  vivid  account  of  the  causes  and  difficulties  of 
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of  organic  ‘attacks  of  indigestion,*  will  find  in  the 
pages  of  this  volume  much  of  illumination.” — The  Survey 


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VALUE  OF  THE  CLASSICS 

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THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


A  JOURNAL  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


JANUARY  1918 


Volume  XXVI 


Number  i 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  AND  MATHEMATICS  AS  RE¬ 
QUIREMENT  FOR  ADMISSION  TO,  AND  GRADUA¬ 
TION  FROM,  AMERICAN  COLLEGES 
AND  UNIVERSITIES 


E.  E.  LEWIS 
State  University  of  Iowa 


The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  determine  the  status  in  1896  and 
*  in  1916  of  the  entrance  and  graduation  requirements  in  foreign 
^  languages  and  mathematics  in  American  colleges  and  universities. 
The  data  were  secured  by  Mr.  M.  J.  Wilcox,  a  graduate  student 
in  education,  from  an  examination  of  the  catalogues  for  1896  and 
1916  of  thirty-five  of  our  leading  institutions  of  learning:  Amherst 
^  College,  Beloit  College,  University  of  California,  Carleton  College, 
University  of  Colorado,  Columbia  University,  Cornell  University, 
Dartmouth  College,  De  Pauw  University,  University  of  Georgia, 
v  Harvard  University,  University  of  Illinois,  Indiana  University, 
University  of  Kansas,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Michigan,  University  of  Minnesota,  University  of 
'V  Missouri,  University  of  Nebraska,  New  York  University,  Oberlin 
^  College,  Ohio  State  University,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Princeton  University,  University  of  Rochester,  Tufts  College, 
Tulane  University,  University  of  Virginia,  University  of  Washing¬ 
ton,  Western  Reserve  University,  Williams  College,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  and  Yale  University.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  list 


J 


2 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


does  not  include  all  of  the  institutions  which  might  be  properly 
included  in  such  a  list.  The  reason  for  this  omission  is  that  the 
catalogues  of  such  institutions  were  not  available  for  both  dates. 
The  list  is,  however,  representative. 

The  status  of  entrance  requirements  in  mathematics  in  1896 
and  1916  is  shown  in  Table  I.  The  requirements  in  both  cases 
are  for  the  A.B.  course,  but  are  also  the  minimum  for  any  liberal- 
arts  course.  From  this  table  we  see  that  only  one  school  in  1896 
and  one  in  1916  had  no  entrance  requirement  in  mathematics. 
There  is,  however,  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  mathematics 
required.  In  1896  thirteen  schools  required  at  least  algebra  and 
plane  and  solid  geometry,  while  in  1916  only  four  schools  required 
more  than  algebra  and  plane  geometry. 


TABLE  I 

Entrance  Requirements  in  Mathematics  for  A.B. 
Course  in  1896  and  1916 


Subjects  Required 

No.  of  Institutions 

1896 

1916 

Algebra,  plane,  solid,  and  spherical 
geometry . 

2 

1 

Algebra,  plane  and  solid  geometry . . 

13 

3 

Algebra  and  plane  geometry . 

19 

28 

Algebra . 

O 

1 

Algebra  or  plane  geometry . 

O 

1 

No  requirement . 

I 

1 

Table  II  shows  the  entrance  requirements  in  Latin  and  Greek 
for  the  A.B.  course  in  1896  and  1916. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  median  requirement  in  Latin  in 
1896  was  four  years,  and  in  1916  none  at  all.  For  Greek  the  1896 
median  was  two  years,  and  the  1916  median  was  none.  In  1896 
three  schools  had  no  specific  requirement  in  Latin,  and  in  1916 
twenty-seven  had  none.  In  1896  twelve  schools  had  no  specific 
requirements  in  Greek,  and  in  1916  thirty-four  had  none.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  entrance  requirements  in  the  ancient 
languages  have  been  greatly  decreased. 


REQUIREMENT  FOR  ADMISSION  TO  COLLEGES 


3 


The  entrance  requirements  in  modern  languages  for  the  A.B. 
course  have  not  been  of  great  importance.  In  1896  one  modern 
language  was  required  by  five  schools,  and  in  1916  by  two  schools. 


TABLE  II 

Entrance  Requirements  in  Latin  and  Greek  for  A.B. 
Course  in  1896  and  1916 


1896 

1916 

Latin: 

5  years . 

6 

0 

4  “  . 

19 

6 

3  “  . 

7 

2 

None . 

3 

27 

Greek: 

3  years . 

14 

1 

2  “  . 

9 

0 

Greek  or  Latin . 

0. 

5 

Greek,  none . 

12 

34 

Table  III  presents  the  number  of  years  of  foreign  language  (both 
ancient  and  modern)  required  for  admission  to  the  A.B.  course  in 
1896  and  1916. 

TABLE  III 

Number  of  Years  of  Foreign  Language  Required 
for  Admission  to  A.B.  Course  in  1896  and  1916 


1896 

1916 

9  years . 

1 

0 

8  “  . 

8 

0 

7  “  . 

5 

1 

6  “  . 

8 

5 

5  “  . 

6 

4 

4  “  . 

1 

6 

3  *  . 

3 

5 

2  “  . 

1 

9 

0  “  . 

2 

5 

The  median  requirement  in  1896  was  six  years  of  foreign 
language,  and  in  1916  three  years  of  foreign  language.  In  1896 
twenty-eight  schools  required  more  than  four  years  of  foreign 
language  for  entrance,  and  in  1916  only  ten  required  more  than 
four  years. 


4 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


Table  IV  shows  the  minimum  requirements  in  foreign  language 
for  entrance  into  any  liberal  course. 


TABLE  IV 

Minimum  Requirements  in  Foreign  Language  for 
Entrance  into  Any  Liberal  Course 


1896 

I9l6 

Greek,  Latin,  and  one  other . 

2 

O 

Greek  and  Latin . 

0 

2 

O 

Greek  or  Latin  and  one  other . 

1 

2 

Greek  or  Latin . 

1 

O 

Latin  and  two  modern . 

2 

O 

Latin  and  one  other . 

A 

2 

Latin . 

*T 

4 

0 

O 

Two  foreign  languages . 

0 

6 

One  foreign  language . 

6 

18 

No  foreign  language . 

2 

6 

O 

In  all  except  three  schools  some  foreign  language  was  required 
for  entrance  into  all  courses  in  1896,  and  in  all  except  six  schools 
some  foreign  language  was  required  for  entrance  into  all  courses 
in  1916.  In  1896  seventeen  schools  required  an  ancient  language, 
while  in  1916  only  five  required  an  ancient  language  for  entrance 
into  all  courses. 

Table  V  shows  the  requirements  in  mathematics  for  graduation 
from  the  A.B.  course  in  1896  and  1916. 

TABLE  V 

Number  of  Years  of  Mathematics  Required  for 
Graduation  from  A.B.  Course  in 
1896  and  1916 


1896 

19x6 

2  years . 

9 

2 

1*  “  . 

1 

0 

1  year  . 

15 

13 

h  “  . 

3 

2 

Amount  not  specified . 

3 

1 

None . 

4 

17 

These  requirements  are  in  addition  to  the  minimum  entrance 
requirements  in  mathematics.  In  1896  ten  schools  required  more 
than  one  year  of  college  mathematics,  and  in  1916  only  two  schools 


REQUIREMENT  FOR  ADMISSION  TO  COLLEGES 


5 


required  more  than  one  year.  In  1896  four  schools  required  no 
college  mathematics,  and  in  1916  seventeen  schools  required  none. 

Table  VI  shows  the  requirements  in  foreign  languages  for 
graduation  from  the  A.B.  course  in  1896  and  1916.  The  chief 
change  shown  in  this  table  is  the  decline  in  the  importance  of  Greek 
in  the  A.B.  course.  In  1896  it  was  required  in  twenty- two  schools, 
and  in  1916  in  only  one  school.  Latin  has  also  declined  somewhat 
in  importance,  although  it  still  has  an  important  place. 

TABLE  VI 


Requirements  in  Foreign  Languages  for  Gradua¬ 
tion  from  the  A.B.  Course  in  1896  and  1916 


1896 

1916 

Greek  and  two  modern  languages. .  . 

1 

0 

Greek  and  Latin  and  one  other . 

IS 

1 

Greek  and  Latin . 

6 

0 

Greek  or  Latin  and  one  other . 

2 

9 

Greek  or  Latin . 

0 

1 

Latin  and  two  others . 

2 

2 

Latin  and  one  other . 

0 

2 

Two  foreign  languages . 

0 

4 

One  foreign  language . 

7 

13 

No  foreign  language . 

2 

3 

Table  VII  shows  the  minimum  requirements  in  foreign  language 
for  graduation  in  any  course. 


TABLE  VII 

Minimum  Foreign  Language  Requirements  for 
Graduation  in  Any  Liberal  Course 


1896 

1916 

7  years . 

1 

0 

6  “  . 

0 

0 

5  “  . 

4 

0 

4  “  . 

8 

2 

3  “  . 

5 

4 

2  “  . 

11 

20 

1  year  . 

3 

5 

0  “  . 

3 

4 

Two  years  of  foreign  language  now  seems  to  be  the  prevailing 
requirement  for  graduation.  In  1916  only  six  schools  required 


6 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


more  than  two  years,  while  in  1896  eighteen  schools  required 
more  than  two  years. 

Table  VIII  shows  the  degrees  and  number  of  degrees  offered  by 
the  institutions  in  1896  and  1916. 


TABLE  VIII 

Type  and  Number  of  Liberal  Degrees  Offered  in 
1896  and  1916 


> 

1896 

1916 

A.B . 

35 

35 

B.S . 

20 

17 

Ph.B . 

13 

O 

B.L . 

*3 

O 

I 

Four  degrees . 

7 

3 

O 

Three  degrees . 

15 

I 

Two  degrees . 

3 

16 

One  degree . 

14 

18 

The  tendency  has  been  to  abolish  the  Ph.B.  and  B.L.  degrees. 
There  is  only  a  slight  decrease  in  the  number  of  schools  granting 
B.S.  degrees,  but  in  a  number  of  catalogues  the  abandonment  of 
this  degree  at  some  furure  time  was  announced.  The  difference 
between  requirements  of  the  various  courses  has  largely  dis¬ 
appeared  with  the  lowered  requirements  in  foreign  and  especially 
ancient  languages. 

Summary:  The  results  of  this  study  indicate  a  tendency  toward 
granting  one  degree  for  all  liberal  studies  and  the  elimination  of 
specific  requirements  in  mathematics  and  foreign  languages  both 
for  entrance  to,  and  graduation  from,  American  colleges  and 
universities. 


THE  SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL 
CURRICULUM 


HERBERT  G.  LULL 

Director  of  Teacher  Training,  Elementary  School,  Junior  and  Senior  High  Schools, 
Kansas  State  Normal  School,  Emporia 

Traditionally  the  purpose  of  the  constants  of  the  secondary- 
school  curriculum  has  been  to  meet  certain  needs  thought  to  be 
fundamental.  Latin  with  its  auxiliary  lines  of  instruction,  con¬ 
stituting  the  constants  of  the  colonial  Latin  grammar  school,  was 
supposed  to  meet  the  professional  need  of  the  time  by  giving  boys 
their  foundational  training  for  the  ministry.  By  slow  degrees  the 
academies  and  the  early  high  schools  were  permitted  by  the  colleges, 
in  response  to  other  social  demands,  to  add  to  the  ancient-language 
core  such  constants  as  mathematics,  English,  science,  and  history. 

The  growth  of  the  modern  cosmopolitan  high  school  with  its 
increasing  and  varied  functions  has  made  the  old  plan  of  curriculum¬ 
making  impracticable.  In  recent  years  the  reverse  movement  of 
eliminating  certain  constants  has  taken  place,  and  at  the  same 
time  there  has  been  a  growing  recognition  of  the  value  of  elective 
subjects.  The  classics  were  the  first  to  be  dropped  from  the  list 
of  constants.  Then  followed  the  withdrawal  of  the  requirement 
of  any  foreign  language  for  high-school  graduation.  Mathematics 
is  now  a  questionable  constant,  and  science  must  be  a  general  and 
highly  socialized  science  to  escape  criticism  as  a  constant. 

There  seem  to  be  no  clearly  defined  principles  guiding  the  cur¬ 
ricular  changes  in  the  high  school.  Although  there  has  been  a 
remarkable  uniformity  of  practice,  the  question  of  what  subjects 
should  be  included  in  the  core  of  constants  has  been  decided  by 
the  colleges  and  universities  on  the  basis  of  traditional  tendencies 
and  present  social  expediency  rather  than  on  that  of  principles 
based  upon  the  fundamental  needs  of  high-school  students.  Sub¬ 
jects  have  been  made  the  constants  of  the  curriculum  for  a 
variety  of  alleged  reasons.  Among  the  reasons  assigned  for 


7 


8 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


including  subjects  in  the  core  of  constants  were  the  following:  In 
some  cases  a  subject  was  included  for  its  professional  values,  and 
when  these  values  were  not  in  evidence  it  was  included  for  its  dis¬ 
ciplinary  values  or  cultural  values  or  college-preparatory  values. 
In  recent  years  much  has  been  made  of  vocational  values,  citizen¬ 
ship  values,  and  physical-development  values  as  reasons  for  pre¬ 
scribing  certain  subjects.  As  new  subjects  representing  new  values 
have  gained  recognition  their  advocates  have  sought  to  find  a 
place  in  the  sun  for  them. 

At  all  times  the  college  has  been  the  final  arbiter  in  deciding 
what  values  should  determine  the  constants  of  the  high-school 
curriculum.  The  constants  are  usually  the  prescribed  college- 
admission  requirements,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  other  reason  for 
the  present  arrangement  of  constants.  In  view  of  the  development 
of  our  cosmopolitan  world-serving  high  schools  turning  a  very 
small  percentage  of  their  students  collegeward,  and  in  view  of  the 
increasing  needs  of  the  people  for  collective  action  guided  by 
common  social  insights  which  are  not  developed  by  the  present 
core  of  college  requirements  or  constants,  it  appears  that  we  need 
a  new  theory  and  practice  of  high-school  curriculum-making. 

A  more  rational  theory  of  constants  may  be  stated  as  follows: 
The  constants  of  the  high-school  curriculum  should  be  only  those 
lines  of  common  knowledge  and  training  which  individuals  of  a 
democracy  must  have  to  live  together  as  free  and  responsible 
citizens.  Stated  concretely  there  should  be  no  subjects  prescribed 
for  all  students  of  the  high  school  which  do  not  deal  directly  with 
problems  of  health,  citizenship,  and  the  means  of  communication 
through  the  vernacular. 

We  shall  appreciate  the  bearings  of  our  question  better  by 
first  considering  it  in  relation  to  the  elementary  school  and  the 
junior  high  school.  Without  attempting  to  define  the  varied  aims 
of  elementary  instruction,  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  the  children 
are  securing  a  foundation  of  common  knowledge  and  training  out 
of  which  will  develop  their  special  lines  of  work  and  interests, 
and  which  will  leave  for  them,  on  the  other  hand,  an  inner  core  of 
common  knowledge  and  training,  emphasizing  English,  health, 
and  citizenship.  This  differentiated  stage  of  work  should  begin 
to  emerge  in  the  junior  high  school. 


SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


9 


A  large  variety  of  elective  offerings  should  be  made  in  the  junior 
high  school  in  order  that  pupils  of  various  dominating  interests 
and  vocational  aptitudes  may  have  ample  opportunities  for  self- 
discovery  under  the  careful  direction  of  the  teachers  and  of  the 
vocational-guidance  director.  As  the  pupil  passes  through  the 
junior  high  school,  his  prescribed  subjects,  brought  forward  from 
the  elementary  school,  should  gradually  narrow  down  to  English 
composition,  hygiene  (including  physical  training),  and  citizenship 
studies,  while  his  opportunities  for  elections  should  gradually 
increase. 

Such  an  arrangement  of  subjects,  however,  will  mean  little  in 
helping  the  pupils  discover  their  special  aptitudes  and  interests 
unless  their  studies  are  used  as  instruments  of  social  interpretation. 
When  the  pupils  have  finished  the  work  of  the  first  six  grades 
they  should  have  a  reasonable  mastery  of  the  technique  of  the 
common  branches  in  order  that  the  major  emphasis  in  the  junior 
high  school  may  be  placed  upon  the  use  of  the  technique.  Of 
course  the  junior  high  school,  or  even  the  senior  high  school,  or 
the  college  for  that  matter,  is  not  absolved  from  teaching  the  tech¬ 
nique  of  subjects;  this  point  of  emphasis  changes  gradually.  The 
child  in  the  primary  grades  is  primarily  engaged  in  acquiring  the 
technique  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  and  to  a  less  extent  the 
technique  of  music  and  industrial  arts,  including  drawing,  painting, 
etc.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  the  pupils  have,  generally  speak¬ 
ing,  a  sufficient  reading  vocabulary  to  begin  reading  for  thought, 
a  sufficient  command  of  spelling  and  writing  to  begin  writing 
original  compositions,  a  sufficient  control  of  number  combinations 
to  apply  them  to  practical  problems  found  outside  the  textbook,  a 
sufficient  grasp  of  musical  notation  to  do  simple  sight-singing  and 
to  work  out  simple  harmonies,  and  sufficient  skill  in  using  pencil, 
crayon,  scissors,  and  shop  tools  to  work  out  simple  and  original 
designs  in  drawing  and  simple  projects  in  manual  training. 

As  the  pupil  passes  into  the  junior  high  school  the  emphasis 
upon  the  acquisition  of  the  technique  of  subjects  gradually  shifts 
to  the  use  of  the  technique  as  tools  in  securing  new  ideas  and 
appreciation,  solving  problems,  and  executing  projects.  However, 
this  distinction  between  the  instruction  of  the  elementary  grades 
and  that  of  the  junior  high  school  is  only  a  distinction  of  emphasis, 


10 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


and  it  varies  in  the  different  kinds  of  activities.  As  the  pupil  goes 
into  the  junior  high  school  he  will  study  arithmetic  more  to  solve 
home,  school,  and  community  problems  than  to  solve  problems  as 
a  preparation  for  more  mathematics,  although  the  latter  phase 
should  not  be  neglected.  He  will  write  compositions  primarily  to 
express  himself  fully,  freely,  and  originally  to  his  fellows  rather 
than  to  learn  the  technique  of  punctuation,  sentence-structure, 
etc.  By  means  of  the  trying-out  processes  in  applying  the  social 
test  to  the  pupil’s  studies  and  activities  and  by  other  means  of 
vocational  guidance  he  ought  to  be  fairly  well  prepared  to  choose 
the  line  of  work  which  will  meet  his  special  needs. 

If  we  have  characterized  the  work  of  the  junior  high  school 
correctly,  then  it  is  clear  that  the  curriculum  of  the  senior  high 
school  as  it  now  stands  should  be  reorganized.  The  time  has 
nearly  arrived  when  the  constants  of  the  high-school  curriculum 
will  no  longer  consist  of  a  core  of  subjects  for  disciplinary  purposes 
or  general  culture  purposes  or  vocational  and  professional  pur¬ 
poses.  Neither  the  need  of  training  for  citizenship  nor  that  of 
the  divergent  interests  and  vocations  can  be  satisfied  longer  by 
arranging  its  courses  under  the  traditional  captions  of  “English 
Course,”  “Classical  Course,”  “Latin-Scientific  Course,”  “Scientific 
Course,”  etc.  These  old  disciplinary  and  knowledge  classifications 
have  little  meaning  for  students  and  teachers  alike.  There  is  little 
in  such  classifications  that  indicates  definite  purposes  in  the  selec¬ 
tion  of  branches  or  in  the  treatment  of  subject-matter. 

Preparation  to  enter  college  or  university  is  usually  a  prepara¬ 
tion  to  enter  ultimately  some  one  of  the  professions,  as  teaching,  law, 
medicine,  engineering,  or  the  ministry.  In  the  main  the  prepara¬ 
tory  course  relating  to  these  several  professional  destinations  is 
fairly  well  determined.  It  consists  of  at  least  three  years  of  Eng¬ 
lish,  two  years  of  foreign  language,  one  year  of  ancient,  mediaeval, 
English,  American,  or  modern  European  history,  one  and  one- 
half  years  of  mathematics,  one  year  of  science  (usually  physics), 
and  six  and  one-half  years  of  electives.  In  case  students  are  plan¬ 
ning  to  become  engineers  they  should  elect  more  mathematics  and 
physical  and  chemical  science;  to  become  physicians,  more  bio¬ 
logical,  chemical,  and  physical  science;  to  become  lawyers,  more 


SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


II 


English,  history,  and  language;  to  become  ministers,  more  English, 
history,  and  social  science;  or,  to  become  teachers,  more  of  the 
subjects  in  which  they  wish  to  specialize.  It  ought  to  be  perfectly 
clear,  however,  that  the  fact  that  universities  require  eight  to 
nine  units  of  certain  subjects  for  admission  constitutes  no  adequate 
reason  for  making  these  requirements  the  constants  of  the  high- 
school  curriculum.  The  decision  to  go  to  the  university  is  an 
elective  decision  just  the  same  as  the  decision  to  elect  woodwork 
when  one  chooses  to  become  a  carpenter  is  an  elective  decision. 
If  a  student  decides  to  go  to  the  university  he  should  choose  the 
grouping  of  the  subjects  which  will  best  prepare  him  to  enter 
and  pursue  his  university  work,  or  if  he  desires  to  become  a  ma¬ 
chinist  he  should  choose  the  grouping  of  subjects  which  will  best 
prepare  him  for  that  work.  Preparing  for  the  university  or  a 
vocation  at  the  end  of  the  high-school  course  is  an  election,  and 
neither  kind  of  preparation  should  have  any  weight  in  deter¬ 
mining  the  prescribed  subjects  for  all  high-school  boys  and 
girls. 

Fortunately  there  is  no  longer  any  need  of  making  high-school 
constants  and  university-admission  requirements  synonymous  terms. 
Since  1890  the  colleges  and  universities  have  steadily  increased 
the  number  of  optional  subjects  which  may  be  offered  for  admis¬ 
sion.  A  system  of  “  high-school  exemptions”  is  being  introduced 
in  the  universities.  This  system  might  be  called  a  “high-school- 
university  reciprocity  treaty,”  because  when  a  student  enters  with 
a  certain  number  of  credits  in  science,  mathematics,  language, 
etc.,  he  is  not  required  to  take  these  subjects  in  the  university, 
and  when  he  enters  without  the  required  number  of  credits  in  these 
subjects  he  must  take  them  in  the  university,  for  which,  however, 
he  receives  university  credit.  He  may  enter  the  university  in 
either  case  without  condition,  provided  he  can  present  fifteen  or 
sixteen  units  from  an  accredited  high  school.  The  student  who 
plans  well  for  admission  under  this  system  increases  his  opportuni¬ 
ties  for  university  election. 

Let  us  apply  the  theory  of  the  social  core  and  electives  to  cur¬ 
riculum-making  (1)  of  the  junior  high  school  and  (2)  of  the  senior 
high  school. 


12 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


JUNIOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 
CONSTANTS  AND  ELECTIVES 

Constants,  (i)  Primary  group  including  English ,  United 
States  history ,  community  civics  {including  community  sanitation ), 
physical  training  {including  personal  hygiene). — The  study  of  Eng¬ 
lish  should  emphasize  oral  and  written  composition  and  should 
extend  through  the  three  years  of  the  junior  high  school.  United 
States  history  should  extend  through  the  seventh  and  the  first  half 
of  the  eighth  years,  and  community  civics  should  be  offered  during 
the  last  of  the  eighth  and  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  years.  Physi¬ 
cal  training  should  extend  through  all  three  years. 

Constants.  (2)  Secondary  group. — Certain  other  branches 
should  be  admitted  to  the  junior  high-school  constants  on  condition 
that  they  be  organized  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  important  con¬ 
tributions  to  citizenship.  This  group  should  include  mathematics , 
elementary  and  general  science ,  geography ,  and  home  economics  for 
girls.  A  highly  socialized  form  of  mathematics  should  extend 
through  the  seventh  and  eighth  years.  It  should  be  made  a  real 
instrument  in  solving  social  and  economic  problems  which  are 
significant  in  the  common  life  of  all  junior  high-school  pupils. 
Elementary  and  general  science  should  be  highly  socialized,  and  it 
should  include  community  sanitation.  Elementary  science  should 
extend  through  the  seventh  and  eighth  years,  and  general  science 
through  at  least  one-half  of  the  ninth.  Geography  should  be 
closely  connected  with  elementary  science;  indeed,  so  closely  con¬ 
nected  that  it  will  be  the  get-away-from-home  part  of  the  elementary- 
science  course.  So  organized,  it  should  extend  through  the  seventh 
and  eighth  years  with  elementary  science.  It  may  be  debatable 
whether  home  economics  should  be  prescribed  for  all  girls  in  the 
junior  high  school.  There  is  probably  a  common  ground  of  ex¬ 
perience  within  the  large  field  of  home  economics  which  contributes 
to  citizenship  efficiency  sufficiently  to  warrant  its  prescription  for 
all  girls  through  the  seventh  and  eighth  years. 

Elective  groups. — All  other  subjects  should  be  placed  in  the 
elective  list,  not  to  be  chosen  by  any  random  method,  but  with 
certain  definite  purposes  in  view,  such  as:  (1)  the  discovery  of  the 
pupil’s  vocational  or  professional  aptitudes ;  (2)  his  participation  in 


SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


13 


recreational,  avocational,  and  aesthetic  activities  and  apprecia¬ 
tions  ;  and  (3)  as  far  as  possible  to  stimulate  him  to  acquire  gen¬ 
eral  knowledge  and  interests  of  world-significance. 

Electives  are  to  be  excluded  from  the  prescribed  list,  not  be¬ 
cause  they  are  less  important,  but  because  they  are  not  of  universal 
importance.  Indeed  as  instruments  in  realizing  particular  pur¬ 
poses  they  are  of  highest  importance,  but  they  should  be  evaluated 
and  taught  with  the  appropriate  purposes  in  mind. 

Among  the  controlling  purposes  of  election  in  the  junior  high 
school  is  that  of  prevocational  instruction.  Such  instruction  is 
too  often  interpreted  as  manual  projects  in  wood  or  other  mate¬ 
rials  having  more  or  less  industrial  significance,  and  sewing  and 
cooking  for  girls,  paralleling,  with  little  or  no  connection,  the 
traditional  subjects  of  the  upper  elementary  grades  or  of  the  junior 
high  school.  Again,  prevocational  instruction  is  frequently  con¬ 
sidered  important  only  for  children  retarded  in  the  traditional 
branches  or  for  the  children  of  industrial  workers. 

The  course  in  prevocational  instruction  should  provide  (1)  a 
variety  of  vocational  experiences,  (2)  related  technical  information 
and  related  processes  of  the  vocational  experiences,  and  (3)  sup¬ 
porting  subjects  treating  such  topics  as  the  hygiene,  the  civics,  and 
the  economics  of  the  vocations.  The  first  and  second  groups  of 
activities  should  be  conducted  by  the  same  teachers.  The  third 
group  of  activities  should  be  provided  in  the  civic  core  of  the  junior 
high  school.  These  three  phases  of  prevocational  instruction 
should  deal  with  the" three  major  divisions  of  vocations — industry, 
commerce,  and  agriculture. 

Prevocational  instruction  is  a  part  of  the  larger  program  of 
vocational  guidance.  It  is  that  part  which  furnishes  vocational 
experience  and  vocational  information. 

In  the  first  stage  of  its  development  vocational  guidance  was 
thought  to  consist  in  analyzing  the  vocations  and  the  child’s  phys¬ 
iological  and  psychological  characteristics  as  the  basis  of  giving  ex¬ 
pert  advice  regarding  the  choice  of  a  vocation.  While  this  phase  of 
the  work  is  still  important  it  is  now  understood  to  be  fundamental 
that  the  child  should  participate  in  making  a  choice  of  the  voca¬ 
tion.  Indeed  it  is  not  imperative  that  all  pupils  should  choose  their 


14 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


vocations  before  finishing  the  junior  high  school  or  even  before  fin¬ 
ishing  the  senior  high  school.  But  in  this  country,  where  everyone 
should  work,  some  vocational  experience  and  some  study  of  the 
great  fields  of  human  endeavor  should  be  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
junior  high  school.  What  specific  vocational  experience  and 
what  vocational  information  should  be  emphasized  will  depend  (i) 
upon  the  kind  of  community  in  which  the  school  is  located  and  (2) 
upon  the  vocational  aptitudes  of  the  pupils. 

TABLE  I 


Junior  High-School  Curriculum 


Electives 

Constants 

Electives 

Guidance — Vocational 

Citizenship  Knowledge  and 
Activity 

Guidance — Professional, 

A  vocational,  Cultural 

Seventh  grade: 

Seventh  grade: 

Seventh  grade: 

Industrial  drawing 

English 

Foreign  languages 

Woodwork 

United  States  history 

Music  (voice  and  instru¬ 

Metal-work 

Physical  training 

mental) 

Elementary  business 

Elementary  science — 

Dramatics 

methods 

geography 

Art  appreciation 

Elementary  agriculture 

Arithmetic 

Drawing 

Eighth  grade: 

Home  economics  (girls) 

Painting 

Industrial  drawing 

Eighth  grade: 

Eighth  grade: 

Woodwork 

English 

Foreign  languages 

Metal-work 

United  States  history, 

Music  (voice  and  instru¬ 

Printing 

community  civics,  \ 

mental) 

Elementary  business 

Physical  training 

Dramatics 

methods 

Elementary  science — 

Art  appreciation 

Elementary  agriculture 

geography 

Arithmetic 

Drawing 

Painting 

Ninth  grade: 

Industrial  drawing 

Home  economics  (girls) 

Clay  and  pottery 

Woodwork 

Ninth  grade: 

Ninth  grade: 

Metal-work 

English 

Foreign  languages 

Printing 

Physical  training 

Music  (vocal  and  instru¬ 

Cement-work 

Community  civics,  §; 

mental) 

Bookkeeping 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Business  arithmetic 
Agriculture 

Home  economics 

general  science,  f 

Dramatics 

Algebra 

Debating  and  oratory 

Art  appreciation 

Drawing 

Painting 

Clay  and  pottery 

Botany 

History 

In  addition  to  the  various  prevocational  opportunities,  the 
junior  high  school  should  offer  foreign  languages,  music,  dramatics, 


SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


IS 


drawing  and  painting  of  the  fine-arts  type,  as  activities  calculated 
to  assist  in  discovering  the  professional  aptitudes  of  the  pupils. 
These  branches  also  will  be  important  in  discovering  their  avoca- 
tional  and  cultural  interests. 

We  have  suggested  three  general  groupings  of  studies — the 
citizenship,  the  vocational,  and  the  professional  and  cultural.  Of 
course  such  group  arrangements  of  studies  are  not  mutually  ex¬ 
clusive,  because  vocational,  citizenship,  professional,  and  cultural 
values  are  not  mutually  exclusive.  At  best  any  grouping  of  sub¬ 
jects  of  instruction  is  only  a  grouping  for  emphasis.  The  problem 
is  to  help  the  boys  and  girls  find  themselves.  This  problem 
cannot  be  solved  by  confining  their  work  to  prearranged  courses. 
All  of  the  junior  high  school  is  for  each  pupil  as  far  as  he  can 
make  profitable  use  of  it.  Necessarily  in  a  vocational-guidance 
program  there  will  be  many  “zigzag”  journeys.  The  “zigzagging” 
should  be  done  as  intelligently  as  possible. 

Tabulated  in  general  outlines  the  curriculum  of  a  junior  high 
school  of  a  small  city  might  follow  the  suggestions  given  in  Table  I. 


TABLE  II 

Senior  High-School  Curriculum 
Constants  and  Elective  Groups 


Elective  Groups 
Leading  to  Vocations 
Requiring  Less  than 
College  Preparation 


Constants 


Elective  Groups 
Leading  to 
College  Courses 


Civics  here  should  include  economics. 


In  each  of  the  three  years  of  the  junior  high  school,  pupils  could 
elect  from  three  to  four  subjects  in  addition  to  the  required  sub¬ 
jects  or  constants. 


i6 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


By  the  time  the  pupil  reaches  the  senior  high  school  he  should  be 
able  to  elect  groups  of  subjects  relating  to  definite  goals  of  achieve¬ 
ment  in  the  vocations,  professions,  etc.  The  constants  of  the  senior 
high  school  should  be  limited  to  the  “primary  group,”  including 
English  composition,  history,  civics,  and  physical  training. 

In  each  of  the  three  years  of  the  senior  high  school  the  students 
could  carry  from  two  to  three  units  in  their  elective  groups  in 
addition  to  the  required  constants. 

Assuming  that  the  student  has  discovered  his  special  vocational 
or  professional  aptitudes  and  avocational  or  cultural  interests  during 
the  junior  high-school  period,  what  would  be  his  senior  high- 
school  program  ?  Supposing  he  desires  to  become  an  agriculturalist, 
his  program  might  be  as  follows : 


Constants: 

English  composition .  3  units 

History .  2  units 

Civics .  1  unit 

Physical  training 

Group  Elected — V ocational — Agriculture  : 

Agriculture. . .  3  units 

Botany .  1  unit 

Physics  or  Zoology .  1  unit 

Farm  accounting . ^  unit 

Farm  carpentry .  |  unit 


Free  Elective — Avocational,  Cultural,  etc.: 

One  to  three  units 

Suppose  that  a  student  wishes  to  enter  the  university,  possibly 
to  study  medicine.  His  program  might  be  as  follows: 

Constants:  Same  as  above: 

Group  Elected — Professional — Preparing  to  Study 
Medicine: 

Physics .  1  unit 

Chemistry .  1  unit 

Zoology .  1  unit 

Mathematics .  1  unit 

Foreign  language .  1  or  2  units 

Free  Electives — Avocational,  Cultural,  etc.: 

One  to  three  units 

Note — It  is  assumed  that  a  student  preparing  to  enter  college  will  probably 
have  elected  at  least  one  year  of  algebra  and  one  year  of  foreign  language  in  the  junior 
high  school. 


SOCIAL  CORE  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


17 


In  like  manner  programs  for  students  of  various  vocational  or 
professional  destinations  could  be  worked  out. 

Relation  of  the  social  core  to  elective  groups. — The  subjects  of 
the  social  core  strengthen  vocational  instruction  (1)  by  making 
it  unnecessary  for  vocational  students  to  pursue  the  college- 
preparatory  subjects  which  are  unrelated,  or  at  best  remotely 
related,  to  their  vocational  preparation,  and  (2)  by  furnishing  sup¬ 
porting  information  and  training  for  their  vocational  courses. 
English  composition  should  use  the  vocational  projects  as  content 
for  themes.  Civics  should  deal  with  the  citizenship  problems  of 
the  vocations,  and  United  States  history  should  include  the  more 
important  developments  in  industrial  history.  (3)  The  subjects 
of  the  social  core  strengthen  preparatory  instruction  by  providing 
supporting  information  and  training  for  branches  which  lead  to 
the  professions.  English  composition  should  deal  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  the  problems  of  the  subjects  of  the  preparatory  group. 
Civics  should  include  a  study  of  the  ethics  of  the  professions  and 
the  opportunities  and  needs  of  professional  service.  United  States 
history  should  deal  to  some  extent  with  the  development  of  the 
professions.  (4)  Finally  the  social  core  provides  a  common 
ground  for  students  of  various  aptitudes  and  interests  and  of 
different  vocational  or  professional  destinations  where  they  may 
meet  and  discuss  the  problems  of  citizenship.  The  social  core 
should  provide  an  opportunity  for  boys  engaged  in  industrial 
training  to  associate  their  labor  with  its  large  industrial  and  social 
significance.  The  sons  of  capitalists  and  of  laborers  working  to¬ 
gether  on  the  same  task  should  gather  some  sane  ideas  on  the 
history  and  the  present  meaning  of  trade  unions  and  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  capital.  The  desire  for  a  career  is  fundamental  in  the  life 
of  every  boy.  This  career  and  the  life  surrounding  it  should 
be  idealized  before  they  are  actualized.  Such  is  the  twofold  pur¬ 
pose  of  democracy’s  high  school. 


ELIMINATION  FROM  THE  PUBLIC  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


A  “STUDY  OF  11,224  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS,”  BASED  UPON  THE 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONER  OF 
EDUCATION  FOR  THE  YEARS  1912,  1913, 1914,  AND  1915 


FRANK  G.  PICKELL 
Principal  of  High  School,  Lincoln,  Nebraska 
Assisted  by 

B.  F.  WINKELBLECH 

Head  of  Department  of  Mathematics,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  High  School 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems  in  secondary  education  today 
is  that  growing  out  of  the  enormous  elimination  of  pupils  from  our 
secondary  schools.  Especially  is  this  a  serious  matter  now,  for  at 
this  time  the  high  schools  of  this  country  must  reach  in  increasingly 
large  numbers  the  citizenship  of  tomorrow.  This  democracy 
tomorrow  will  be  in  more  urgent  need  of  safe  and  sane  judgments 
from  all  of  its  constituency  than  ever  before. 

It  is  a  severe  criticism  of  our  administration  of  secondary  educa¬ 
tion  when,  the  country  over,  about  thirty-six  out  of  every  one  hun¬ 
dred  who  enter  the  ninth  year  of  our  secondary  schools  remain  to 
graduate.  We  may  well  pause  to  consider  this  fact  alone,  but, 
according  to  studies  made  by  Dr.  George  D.  Strayer,  of  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  and  other  prominent  educators,  only 
about  35  per  cent  of  those  who  enter  the  first  grade  of  the  elementary 
school  reach  the  first  year  of  the  high  school!  In  other  words,  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  out  of  every  one  hundred  entering  the  first  grade 
of  the  elementary  school  graduate  from  the  high  school.  Stating 
the  facts  somewhat  differently,  we  find  that  92  per  cent  of  all  per¬ 
sons  enrolled  in  the  public-school  system  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  twenty-one  are  in  the  elementary  schools,  6  per  cent  in  the  high 
schools,  and  2  per  cent  in  colleges  and  universities. 

It  is  time  that  we  pause  to  give  full  consideration  to  the  tremen¬ 
dous  fact  that  for  every  thirty-six  whom  we  honor  on  Commence- 

18 


ELIMINATION  FROM  PUBLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


19 


ment  night  (and  they  deserve  it!)  we  have  left  by  the  wayside 
within  four  short  school  years  of  thirty-six  weeks  each  nearly  twice 
that  number.  The  accompanying  tables  might  well  be  distributed 
in  every  faculty  and  every  committee  meeting  in  which  the  problems 
of  secondary  education  are  being  discussed. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  propose  remedies  for  these 
conditions.  The  tables  will  have  served  their  purpose  if  they 
direct  our  attention  more  specifically  to  the  problem  of  waste  in 
secondary  education  and  suggest,  possibly,  that  we  should  look 
more  to  the  conservation  of  boys  and  girls  and  less  to  the  fetish  of 
universal  university  preparation  and  “holding-up-the-standards.” 

METHODS  OF  DETERMINING  THE  ELIMINATION 

1.  The  total  number  of  pupils  entering  in  September,  1911,  the 
11,224  high  schools  included  in  this  study  was  taken  as  the  basis 
upon  which  to  compute  the  elimination.  These  same  pupils  were 
followed  through  the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
until  1915,  when  normally  they  were  due  to  graduate — that  is,  in 
the  1911-12  Report  these  were  first-year  pupils;  in  the  1912-13 
Report  they  were  second-year  pupils,  etc. 

2.  The  number  of  schools  reporting  in  1911  was  11,224,  and, 
although  the  number  of  schools  reporting  varied  in  each  of  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  years,  the  number  was  reduced  to  the  base  11,224.  The 
variation  in  the  number  of  schools  reporting  was  from  11,224  in 
1911  to  11,617  in  1915. 


SOURCES  OF  ERROR 

1.  Retardation  due  to  failures  and  other  reasons. — There  was  no 
way  to  distinguish  between  retarded  pupils  and  those  actually 
eliminated.  However,  what  happens  in  practically  all  cases  of 
serious  retardation  is  quite  obvious. 

2.  Methods  of  classifying  pupils  by  years. — There  is  no  uniform 
basis  upon  which  this  is  done  among  schools. 

3.  Failure  of  some  schools  to  report  continuously  for  the  four 
years. — The  same  schools  may  not  have  made  up  the  total  number 
reporting  from  year  to  year. 


20 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


4.  Effect  of  rapid  development. — In  some  sections  of  the  country 
the  extremely  rapid  development  of  high  schools  caused  a  better 
showing  to  be  made  than  normal  conditions  would  warrant. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  TABLES 

The  accompanying  tables  were  prepared  on  the  basis  of  one 
hundred  pupils  in  the  first  year.  The  figures  given  for  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  years  indicate  respectively  the  number  out  of  the 
original  one  hundred  who  remained  in  school  up  to  that  time. 

TABLE  I 


Showing  Elimination  by  States  in  the  North  Atlantic  Division 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Maine . 

IOO 

72 

58 

50 

New  Hampshire . 

100 

72 

57 

51 

Vermont . 

IOO 

7i 

49 

47 

Massachusetts . 

IOO 

67 

5i 

46 

Rhode  Island . 

IOO 

62 

42 

36 

Connecticut . 

IOO 

68 

49 

45 

New  York . 

IOO 

62 

37 

30 

New  Jersey . 

IOO 

57 

45 

39 

Pennsylvania . 

IOO 

63 

48 

33 

Division . 

IOO 

66 

47 

39 

TABLE  II 

Showing  Elimination  by  States  in  the  North  Central  Division 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Ohio . 

IOO 

68 

55 

44 

Indiana . 

IOO 

73 

61 

54 

Illinois . 

IOO 

63 

44 

42 

Michigan . 

IOO 

70 

56 

46 

Wisconsin . 

IOO 

73 

57 

51 

Minnesota . 

IOO 

67 

50 

46 

Iowa . 

IOO 

76 

59 

47 

Missouri . 

IOO 

65 

43 

33 

North  Dakota . 

IOO 

59 

42 

33 

South  Dakota . 

IOO 

70 

50 

40 

Nebraska . 

IOO 

68 

49 

36 

Kansas . 

IOO 

68 

48 

42 

Division . 

IOO 

69 

5i 

43 

In  each  of  the  several  tables  (I-V)  the  figures  for  the  division 
are  based  on  the  total  number  of  pupils  in  the  division  who,  accord- 


ELIMINATION  FROM  PUBLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


21 


TABLE  III 

Showing  Elimination  by  States  in  the  South  Atlantic  Division 


. 

First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Delaware . 

100 

59 

38 

28 

Maryland . 

100 

65 

50 

35 

Virginia . 

100 

60 

40 

22 

West  Virginia . 

100 

63 

42 

34 

North  Carolina . 

100 

62 

26 

17 

South  Carolina . 

100 

73 

56 

17 

Georgia . 

100 

56 

35 

15 

Florida . 

100 

67 

39 

28 

Division . 

100 

65 

44 

28 

TABLE  IV 

Showing  Elimination  by  States  in  South  Central  Division 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Kentucky . 

160 

58 

38 

19 

Tennessee . 

IOO 

55 

38 

21 

Alabama . 

IOO 

74 

49 

33 

Mississippi . 

IOO 

75 

50 

25 

Louisiana . 

IOO 

76 

50 

34 

Texas . 

IOO 

68 

46 

27 

Arkansas . 

IOO 

60 

38 

27 

Oklahoma . 

IOO 

58 

44 

21 

Division . 

IOO 

64 

43 

28 

TABLE  V 

Showing  Elimination  by  States  in  Western  Division 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Montana . 

IOO 

70 

42 

31 

Wyoming . . . 

IOO 

60 

39 

35 

Colorado . 

IOO 

68 

48 

38 

New  Mexico . 

IOO 

59 

37 

33 

Arizona . 

IOO 

62 

52 

47 

Utah . 

IOO 

64 

47 

37 

Nevada . 

IOO 

60 

48 

31 

Idaho . 

IOO 

66 

50 

37 

Washington . 

IOO 

65 

46 

39 

Oregon . 

IOO 

67 

50 

43 

California . 

IOO 

60 

44 

40 

Division . 

IOO 

62 

45 

37 

ing  to  the  Commissioner’s  Report ,  were  in  the  first  year  in  1911,  in 
the  second  year  in  1912,  in  the  third  year  in  1913,  and  in  the  fourth 
year  in  1914.  These  figures  probably  vary  from  the  averages  or  the 


22 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


medians  of  the  respective  tables  since,  in  computing  the  elimination 
by  states,  slight  variations  in  the  number  of  schools  reporting  were 
neglected,  i.e.,  Nebraska  may  have  reported  510  schools  in  1911  and 
513  schools  in  1912.  The  figures  for  the  divisions  are  even  more 
accurate  than  the  averages  or  medians  under  these  circumstances. 

In  Tables  III  and  IV,  in  some  instances,  we  drew  upon  a  study 
of  elimination  based  upon  state  reports  made  by  Dr.  William  F. 
Russell,  dean  of  the  School  of  Education,  University  of  Iowa. 


TABLE  VI 

Showing  Elimination  by  Divisions 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

North  Atlantic . 

100 

66 

47 

39 

North  Central . 

IOO 

69 

51 

43 

South  Atlantic . 

IOO 

65 

44 

28 

South  Central . 

IOO 

64 

43 

28 

Western . 

IOO 

62 

45 

37 

United  States . 

IOO 

66 

48 

38 

Table  VI  is  a  summary.  It  might  be  well  to  note  here  that  in 
the  United  States  thirty-four  pupils  out  of  every  one  hundred  never 
reach  the  second  year  of  high  school;  fifty- two  do  not  reach  the 
third  year,  and  sixty-two  do  not  remain  until  the  fourth  year ! 


TABLE  Via 

Showing  the  Number  of  Pupils  Enrolled  in  11,224  Public  High  Schools  of 
the  United  States,  by  Years.  Class  Entering  in  19 11 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Pupils  enrolled . 

461,228 

304,150 

221,325 

178,624 

Base  100 . 

IOO 

66 

48 

38 

Probably  the  best  index  of  the  elimination  is  found  in  the  per¬ 
centage  of  graduates.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the  schools  report¬ 
ing  were  not  the  same  in  both  instances  and  because  in  some  schools 
pupils  classified  as  third-year  pupils  may  graduate  with  the  fourth- 
year  class,  and,  again,  some  in  the  fourth  year  may  fail  of  gradu¬ 
ation,  the  figures  in  Tables  VII  and  VIII  ought  not  to  be  checked 


ELIMINATION  FROM  PUBLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


23 


against  those  in  Table  VI.  However,  the  results  may  be  generally 
compared. 

TABLE  VII 


Showing  by  Divisions  the  Number  of  Pupils  Who  Enrolled  in  the  First  Year 
in  1910  and  of  This  Number  Those  Who  Graduated  in  1914 


Entered  in  1910 

Graduated  in  1914 

Percentage 

North  Atlantic . 

i36,47° 

46,331 

34 

North  Central . 

156,303 

70,824 

33 

South  Atlantic . 

30,418 

10,226 

30 

South  Central . 

44,092 

I3>444 

42 

Western . 

45,052 

15,769 

35 

United  States . 

421,325 

156,591 

37 

TABLE  VIII 


Same  as  Table  VII,  Except  Showing  the  Percentage  of  Graduates  by 
Divisions  in  1915 


Entered  in  1911 

Graduated  in  1915 

Percentage 

North  Atlantic . 

145,598 

49,008 

22 

North  Central . 

181,171 

75,376 

41 

South  Atlantic . 

34,384 

H,I95 

32 

South  Central . 

51,061 

i5,ro6 

29 

Western . 

49,174 

18,340 

37 

United  States . 

461,228 

169,014 

36 

TABLE  IX 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Massachusetts . 

[Boys . 

100 

66 

40 

44 

\  Girls . 

100 

70 

58 

55 

Indiana . 

/Boys . 

100 

71 

58 

5i 

\  Girls . 

100 

75 

62 

57 

Virginia . 

/Boys . 

100 

55 

36 

27 

\  Girls . 

100 

67 

49 

42 

Tennessee . 

/Boys . 

100 

cc 

21 

\  Girls . 

100 

62 

45 

26 

Colorado . 

/Boys . 

100 

63 

44 

33 

\Girls . 

100 

72 

54 

44 

From  each  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  United  States  one  state 
was  selected  to  show  the  difference  in  elimination  as  between  boys 


24 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


and  girls.  The  states  selected  are  representative  of  the  respective 
divisions,  and  cover  the  various  factors  affecting  the  elimination  of 
pupils  from  the  public  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States. 
The  results  are  given  in  Table  IX. 

TABLE  X 


Showing  Elimination  in  Certain  Cities  of  the  United  States 
(The  same  method  was  used  in  making  the  calculations  as  in  Tables  I  to  VI) 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Boston . 

IOO 

73 

61 

54 

Kansas  City . 

IOO 

7i 

54 

51 

St.  Louis . 

IOO 

65 

44 

37 

New  York  City . 

IOO 

63 

4i 

21 

Los  Angeles . 

IOO 

45 

40 

41 

Baltimore . 

IOO 

72 

52 

46 

Denver . 

IOO 

86 

49 

48 

Detroit . 

IOO 

69 

50 

46 

Philadelphia . 

IOO 

72 

52 

39 

Milwaukee . 

IOO 

75 

43 

4i 

Spokane . 

IOO 

67 

46 

38 

Salt  Lake  City . 

IOO 

74 

55 

36 

AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  SOCIALIZATION 


ALEXANDER  C.  ROBERTS 
Everett,  Washington 


Whoever  remarked  that  progress  in  human  affairs  comes  because 
we  are  shocked  into  it  uttered  a  word  of  wisdom.  Perhaps  no  one 
ever  said  it,  but  it  is  worth  saying.  The  following  came  as  a  dis¬ 
tinct  shock  to  the  faculty  of  the  Everett  High  School.  As  the  result 
of  the  study1  of  the  scholarship  records  for  five  years  ending  in  June, 
1915,  we  found  that  of  a  total  of  28,087  pupil-subject  schedules 
22,381  resulted  in  earned  credits,  while  2,185  were  failures,  3,088 
were  drop-outs,  and  433  were  incompletes.  In  percentages,  79 .68 
per  cent  of  all  pupil-subject  schedules  resulted  in  earned  credits, 
7.77  per  cent  were  failures,  10.99  Per  cent  were  drop-outs, 
and  1 . 54  per  cent  were  incompletes.  To  discover  that  more 
than  one-fifth  of  all  the  work  undertaken  resulted  in  failures, 
drop-outs,  and  incompletes  was  disconcerting  enough,  but  the 
further  revelation  that  the  heavy  mortality  invariably  occurred 
in  the  first  year  brought  the  sharp  realization  that  vigorous  and 
drastic  reorganization  in  order  to  modernize  and  socialize  the 
entire  range  of  high-school  activity  was  essential  and  highly 
justifiable. 

This  paper  details  the  reaction  of  the  faculty  to  the  shock  which 
we  received.  The  ideals  upon  which  the  socializing  of  the  work  has 
been  founded  are  to  adapt  the  training  offered  in  the  school  to  meet 
every  purposeful  community  demand,  to  utilize  every  available 
community  resource,  to  provide  adequate  preparation  for  every  boy 
and  girl  of  high-school  age  in  the  community  excepting  the  men¬ 
tally  and  morally  unfit,  and  to  arouse  the  community  sentiment  that 
the  proper  scope  of  the  school  covers  in  a  vitally  helpful  way  every 
relation  and  interest  of  the  pupils’  lives. 

J“The  Problem  of  Failures  and  Dropouts  in  High  School  Work/’  American 
School ,  November,  1916. 


25 


26 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


I 

The  proper  socialization  of  any  high  school  is  in  large  part  a  local 
matter.  Here  is  detailed  the  effort  in  one  community  to  solve  its 
problem.  The  city  of  Everett  is  a  commercial  and  industrial  port; 
its  arm  of  labor  is  a  body  of  35,000  independent,  self-respecting, 
home-owning  white  laborers — Americans,  Scandinavians,  Germans, 
Irish,  and  Canadians.  Their  dominant  beliefs  are  religion  and 
education,  as  over  fifty  churches,  two  Scandinavian  schools,  a 
parochial  high  school,  and  a  public  high  school  of  1,100  students 
attest.  With  no  hampering  traditions,  Everett  is  a  city  in  the 
making,  for  it  has  been  hewn  from  the  forest  in  less  than  thirty 
years.  Substantial  prosperity  is  founded  upon  the  products  of  the 
forests  and  the  sea — lumber,  shingles,  paper,  salmon  and  other  sea 
foods — and  upon  the  dependent  industries  of  iron  and  steel,  logging 
and  railroading,  while  many  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships. 

Such  is  the  community;  to  meet  its  broader  educational  needs 
constitutes  its  high-school  problem. 

II 

Twice  each  year  proud  parents  and  fond  friends  gather  at  the 
Eighth- Grade  Central  School  to  witness  the  closing  exercises  and 
presentation  of  common-school  certificates  to  their'  precise,  self- 
possessed,  and  altogether  adorable  daughters  and  to  their  somewhat 
awkward,  self-conscious,  and  much  less  dignified  sons.  To  these 
graduates  three  paths  appear:  the  first  leads  to  business  college, 
and  a  few  follow  it  into  office  work ;  the  second  leads  to  industry  and 
other  work,  and  a  few  follow  it,  mostly  into  blind-alley  jobs;  the 
third  leads  to  the  high  school,  and  many  there  are  who  enter  in; 
no  greater  happiness  has  awaited  them  there,  for  through  investi¬ 
gation  we  discovered  that  before  the  close  of  the  first  year  in  high 
school  more  than  one  in  four  has  failed  and  dropped  out.  This 
startling  revelation  accelerated  the  movement  toward  closer  adap¬ 
tation  of  the  high-school  work  to  individual  and  community  needs 
and  the  organization  of  many  social  agencies  designed  to  interest 
and  hold  in  school  the  ill-adjusted  and  unsocial  adolescent  youth 
— all  of  which  constitutes  the  attempt  at  the  socialization  of  the 
high  school. 


AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  SOCIALIZATION 


27 


III 

There  are  four  approaches  to  the  problem  of  socialization: 
through  organization,  through  the  course  of  study,  through  super¬ 
vision  and  administration,  and  through  the  so-called  outside 
activities.  The  first  of  these  is  organization,  and  by  it  the  type, 
form,  and  spirit  of  the  school  are  largely  determined.  The  segre¬ 
gation  of  the  boys  and  girls  into  separate  classes  for  recitation  pur¬ 
poses  through  the  first  two  years  and  in  the  science  work  permits 
wider  and  freer  discussion  and  allows  radical  differentiation  of 
subject-matter  to  meet  the  special  needs  of  boys  and  girls.  The 
longer  school  day  affords  lesson  preparation  as  well  as  lesson  reci¬ 
tation  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  and  under  proper  study 
conditions.1  It  is  a  matter  of  conscious  effort  to  create  within  the 
student  body  the  sense  of  self-direction  and  self-responsibility  for 
good  order  in  the  classroom,  in  the  cafeteria,  and  in  the  halls.  In 
the  building  up  of  the  faculty  itself  teachers  are  chosen  for  their 
social  outlook  and  their  ability  to  find  a  place  in  the  extra-classroom 
activities  of  the  school  as  well  as  for  their  record  in  scholarship  and 
their  technical  expertness. 

Thus  through  organization  some  of  the  very  fundamental  bases 
of  socialization  are  sought  and  in  a  measure  achieved. 

IV 

The  course  of  study  has  been  planned  to  conserve  the  best  and 
most  essential  parts  of  the  great  masses  of  human  knowledge,  tradi¬ 
tional  to  be  sure,  but  nevertheless  our  heritage  of  culture  from  the 
past,  and  at  the  same  time  to  offer  the  newer  subjects  which  careful 
consideration  apparently  proves  to  be  helpful  and  worth  while. 
Three  years  of  English,  including  one  semester  of  American  litera¬ 
ture  and  one  year  of  advanced  American  history  and  civics,  are  the 
only  subjects  required  of  all  candidates  for  graduation.  The 
courses  offered  are  classed  under  four  heads:  college-entrance, 
elective,  commercial,  and  vocational.  The  four  college-entrance 
courses  are  framed  to  meet  fully  the  group  requirements  of  the 
state  university,  the  four  major  lines  of  work  being  Latin,  history, 
science,  and  modern  language.  The  elective  courses  are  the  general 

1  “Supervised  Study  in  the  Everett  High  School,”  School  Review,  December,  1916. 


28 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


and  the  literary,  half,  of  the  former  being  freely  elective.  Mathe¬ 
matics  may  be  deferred  but  must  be  taken,  and  a  major  consisting 
of  six  semesters  of  work  in  the  department  of  greatest  interest  is 
required.  In  the  latter  there  is  no  mathematics  requirement,  but 
prescriptions  along  other  lines  are  somewhat  more  pronounced, 
three  years  of  foreign  language,  two  years  of  descriptive  science, 
and  two  years  of  history  being  necessary.  Two  commercial  courses 
lead  on  the  one  side  to  thorough  drill  during  the  last  two  years  in 
bookkeeping,  and  on  the  other  to  a  solid  grounding  in  stenography 
and  typewriting.  Penmanship,  commercial  arithmetic,  rapid  drill 
and  spelling,  and  commercial  English  are  required  before  the  work 
in  bookkeeping  and  stenography  is  begun,  and  half  the  work  in  these 
commercial  courses  is  in  other  departments.  A  two-year  course  is 
offered,  however,  for  those  who  cannot  remain  four  years  in  school, 
which  includes  practically  all  of  the  commercial  work,  but  which 
receives  no  school  recognition  when  completed. 

A  regulation  manual-training  course  is  offered  covering  four 
years  of  work,  with  a  major  in  cabinet,  forge,  and  foundry,  machine 
practice,  or  electrical  construction.  Two-  and  three-year  trade 
courses  are  provided  for  boys  who  are  not  especially  interested  in 
graduation  from  high  school. 

A  substantial  home-economics  course,  with  no  definitely  required 
mathematics,  but  with  carefully  worked-out  courses  in  the  chem¬ 
istry  of  the  home,  physiology,  health,  hygiene  and  sanitation,  milli¬ 
nery  and  dressmaking,  dietetics,  home  nursing,  and  care  of  children 
and  the  sick,  provides  the  corresponding  work  for  the  girls.  This 
work  is  all  presented  in  such  a  way  that  all  girls  scheduled  in  other 
courses  may  take  some  of  it  if  they  desire. 

As  the  demand  has  made  itself  felt  the  curriculum  has  been 
broadened  and  enriched,  until  the  following  range  of  work  has  been 
provided:  five  years  of  English,  including  a  year  of  college  English; 
four  years  of  mathematics,  of  which  college  algebra  and  trigonome¬ 
try  are  a  part;  four  years  of  history,  the  high  light  of  which  is  a 
year  of  modern  problems,  the  great  world-movements  since  1870; 
in  science,  first-year  science,  biology,  botany  (three  semesters), 
physics,  chemistry,  both  regular  and  for  the  home,  physiology, 
health,  and  hygiene  are  taught;  Latin  and  German,  four  years 


AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  SOCIALIZATION 


29 


each,  with  two  years  each  of  Spanish,  French,  and  Norse,  and  with 
Swedish  making  a  bid  for  recognition  comprise  the  foreign-language 
work;  the  commercial  work  covers  penmanship,  commercial  arith¬ 
metic,  rapid  drill  and  spelling,  commercial  English  and  business 
forms,  commercial  law,  economics,  bookkeeping,  shorthand,  type¬ 
writing,  and  office  practice;  the  work  offered  in  manual  training 
comprises  shop,  cabinet,  forge,  foundry,  and  pattern-making,  ele¬ 
mentary  and  advanced  machine-shop,  electricity,  mechanical, 
architectural,  and  machine  drawing,  with  special  trade  and  prevoca- 
tional  adaptions;  in  home  economics,  besides  the  special  courses 
mentioned  above,  the  usual  courses  in  sewing  and  cooking  are 
offered;  and  free  electives  not  required  in  any  course  are  art  and 
design,  lettering  and  cartooning,  public  speaking,  and  reviews  of 
the  common  branches.  Outside  music  and  Bible-study  may  under 
prescribed  conditions  be  accepted  toward  graduation. 

Special  adaptations  have  been  worked  out  in  these  respects :  no 
one  may  open  a  set  of  books  until  he  can  write  and  is  efficient  in 
commercial  arithmetic;  no  one  may  schedule  for  stenography  until 
he  can  write,  spell,  and  is  proficient  in  business  English  and  letter¬ 
writing;  upon  recommendation  of  the  faculty  of  the  Eighth- Grade 
Central  School  about  20  per  cent  of  each  incoming  class  is  scheduled 
into  second-semester  English  because  of  a  strong  record  in  the 
grades;  likewise  those  who  have  taken  elementary  Latin  at  Central 
go  directly  into  second-semester  Latin;  and  without  restriction  a 
student  may  carry  a  half-credit  of  work  extra  in  most  vocational 
and  in  a  considerable  part  of  the  commercial  work,  but  no  one  with¬ 
out  a  C  record  or  better  may  schedule  for  five  full  subjects. 

This  statement  of  the  quantity  and  the  range  of  the  work  offered 
indicates  the  attempt  to  provide  for  the  individual  needs  of  every 
student,  and  there  is  a  standing  offer  that  when  twenty  students 
ask  for  instruction  in  any  legitimate  subject  an  effort  will  be  made 
to  furnish  such  instruction. 

The  third  avenue  to  socialization  is  through  supervision  and 
administration.  The  cardinal  principle  of  that  supervision  is  that 
every  teacher  is  encouraged  to  be  independent  in  meeting  his  class¬ 
room  problems.  With  sufficient  direction  and  detail  to  co-ordinate 
the  progress  of  various  sections  of  the  same  work,  the  teacher  is 


30 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


left  to  put  his  individuality  deep  into  the  heart  of  his  problem  and 
work  out  his  own  success.  It  is  a  conscious  school  ideal  that  each 
teacher  be  wise  and  expert  enough  to  meet  his  particular  problems 
better  than  his  superintendent  or  his  principal  can  tell  him  how  to 
meet  them. 

As  a  faculty  we  hold  that  concept  of  ethical  and  moral  values 
which  has  been  phrased  in  a  thousand  ways  and  summed  up  in 
pithy  slang,  ‘ ‘Example  has  the  edge  on  precept.”  It  is  recognized 
that  any  ill-prepared  lesson  plan,  any  carelessly  conducted  recita¬ 
tion,  any  revelation  to  a  keenly  observant  class  of  needless  ignorance 
or  thoughtless  error,  is  immoral  as  the  suggestion  to  steal  or  the 
invitation  to  lie  is  immoral.  Every  earnest  effort,  every  evidence 
of  forethought,  every  successful  recitation  founded  upon  thoughtful 
preparation  and  evident,  outspoken  sincerity  is  a  moral  and  uplift¬ 
ing  force  in  the  life  of  every  student.  In  the  presence  of  such 
example  the  lines  of  precept  may  be  graven  deep. 

Three  means  of  keeping  alive  professional  interest  are  constantly 
available — the  professional  library,  the  men’s  club,  and  the  faculty 
meetings.  The  first  is  the  joint  possession  of  all  the  teachers  of  the 
city;  it  numbers  four  hundred  volumes  and  receives  several  peri¬ 
odicals  and  magazines.  It  is  supported  by  the  voluntary  contri¬ 
butions  of  books  and  money  of  all  the  teachers  and  is  conveniently 
located  for  frequent  consultation.  Notable  new  books  and  maga¬ 
zine  articles  are  quickly  provided,  and  its  influence  is  widespread. 

The  men’s  club  is  an  organization  of  all  the  men  in  the  city 
system  which  meets  once  each  month  during  the  school  year  for  a 
dinner,  a  paper,  and  a  general  discussion.  Since  the  rules  of  dis¬ 
cussion  are  that  anyone  is  at  liberty  to  speak  out  the  things  that 
struggle  for  utterance,  nothing  so  uttered  can  be  considered  per¬ 
sonal,  and  no  arrests  may  be  made  after  a  meeting  for  opinions 
expressed  therein;  this  discussion  takes  a  wide  and  at  times  a 
rampant  range. 

Without  question  the  greatest  integrating  force  is  the  monthly 
high-school  faculty  meeting.  Despite  the  public  statement  of  a 
prominent  educator  that  high-school  faculty  meetings  are  for  the 
most  part  a  failure,  our  experience  year  after  year  has  been  precisely 
the  opposite.  The  plan  of  organization  of  the  meetings  for  the 


AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  SOCIALIZATION 


31 


year  provides  that  every  member  of  the  faculty  shall  appear  once. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  heads  of  the  departments  at  the  beginning  of 
each  school  year  the  first  general  meeting  is  planned  with  the  prin¬ 
cipal  as  leader  and  the  heads  of  departments  as  helpers.  A  general 
topic  is  chosen  and  each  head  is  assigned  a  subtopic  to  present  and 
discuss.  Lots  are  drawn  to  determine  in  which  each  head  of  depart¬ 
ment  shall  take  charge  of  the  meeting,  and  all  the  members  of 
the  faculty  are  chosen  by  the  various  heads  to  assist  in  choosing, 
developing,  and  presenting  some  topic.  These  topics  vary  from 
psychological  and  educational  problems  to  the  most  concrete  of  our 
everyday  troubles  and  experiences,  and  discussion  of  them  is  free 
and  unrestricted.  It  is  the  aim  to  secure  adequate  explanation  and 
discussion  of  every  change  in  high-school  policy  of  any  importance 
in  order  to  adjust  wide  differences  of  opinion  among  the  faculty  and 
to  work  out  a  thoroughly  understood  and  approved  program. 

The  fourth  avenue  toward  socialization  is  through  the  various 
organizations  of  the  school.  Credit  toward  graduation  is  given  for 
the  satisfactory  performance  of  a  specified  amount  of  work  in 
music,  gymnasium,  including  athletics,  debate,  declamation, 
dramatics,  editorial  work,  and  reporting.  One-sixteenth  of  the 
requirements  for  graduation  may  thus  be  met.  The  chief  value  of 
giving  the  credit  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  gives  to  the  work  certain 
standards  and  standing  and  puts  all  of  it  definitely  under  school 
direction  and  control. 

A  thoroughly  successful  superintendent  of  the  old  type  used  to 
say  often  that  when  the  literary  society  came  into  the  school  at 
the  door  scholarship  went  out  at  the  window.  Upon  that  basis  the 
benign  shades  of  academic  excellence  have  ceased  to  fall  upon  us, 
for  we  have,  all  told,  about  thirty  distinct  and  more  or  less  closely 
organized  groups,  clubs,  and  societies. 

We  believe  that  we  recognize  certain  definite  values  in  the  work 
of  these  organizations:  they  provide  a  testing  laboratory  and 
apparatus  for  classroom  information  and  instruction;  they  furnish 
an  experimental  field  where  the  fledglings  may  try  their  wings,  and 
no  great  harm  done  if  they  fail;  here  the  school  makes  its  chief 
effort  to  attain  in  the  students  muscular,  vocal,  mental,  nervous, 
and  moral  control ;  here  the  experiments  in  group  living,  concerted 


32 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


action,  and  social  adjustment  are  carried  out;  in  these  organizations 
conditions  are  reproduced  in  miniature  into  which  the  students 
must  go  and  in  which  they  must  find  their  place;  and  it  is  here 
that  the  interests,  ambitions,  and  energies  of  the  students  come 
first  into  organized  common  touch. 

The  musical  organizations  number  eight,  the  general  chorus  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty,  the  Boys’  Glee  Club,  the  Girls’  Advanced 
Glee  Club,  the  Girls’  Intermediate  Glee  Club,  the  Girls’  Beginning 
Glee  Club,  the  Double  Mixed  Quartet,  the  Boys’  Quartet,  and  the 
orchestra. 

These  organizations  are  in  constant  demand,  furnishing  the 
musical  numbers  for  numerous  programs  both  in  and  out  of  the 
school,  leading  the  assembly  singing,  and  presenting  at  frequent 
intervals  musical  evenings — this  year  a  series  of  four  national  eve¬ 
nings  based  upon  the  songs,  melodies,  and  stories  of  Ireland,  Scot¬ 
land,  England,  and  France. 

The  High-School  Athletic  Association  conducts  the  athletic 
affairs  of  the  school  with  the  assistance  of  the  faculty  athletic 
director.  The  football  squad  numbers  sixty  each  year.  Forty 
boys  turn  out  for  the  first  basket  squad,  and  over  one  hundred 
others  find  a  place  on  some  class,  club,  or  church  team,  and  a  long 
series  of  games  is  played  through.  A  track  squad  of  thirty  and  a 
baseball  squad  of  as  many  more  are  out  for  the  spring  athletics. 
The  “Big  E”  Club  is  made  up  of  those  who  have  won  their  letters 
in  inter-high-school  athletics  and  constitute  a  very  important  social, 
athletic,  and  moral  force  within  the  student  body. 

Philomathia  is  a  flourishing  literary  and  debating  society,  which 
holds  regular  weekly  afternoon  meetings  and  a  series  of  open  meet¬ 
ings  throughout  the  year.  A  team  is  always  entered  in  the  state 
debates.  A  series  of  class  and  in  ter  class  debates  and  a  series  of 
class  declamatory  recitals  culminate  in  the  school  championship 
gold-medal  debates  and  declamatory  contests  which  are  held  each 
March  as  a  part  of  the  annual  programs.  In  these  programs  two 
hundred  students  have  a  part  in  two  evenings  of  music,  debate, 
declamation,  the  junior  farce,  the  college-year  stunt,  and  the  gym¬ 
nasium  exhibit  and  folk-dances.  The  annual  senior  class  play 
follows  in  April  and  closes  the  active  literary  work  of  the  year. 


AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  SOCIALIZATION 


33 


The  foreign-language  department  maintains  three  active  and 
influential  clubs :  Die  Deutsche  Gesellschaft,  the  Spanish  Club,  and 
the  French  Club,  while  the  advanced  Latin  students  entertain  at  a 
party  each  year  the  beginners  in  Latin.  The  German  Club  has  pre¬ 
sented  several  German  plays,  and  all  the  clubs  hold  literary  and 
social  meetings. 

The  science  department  maintains  a  Science  Club,  a  Camera 
Club,  a  Wireless  Club — once  flourishing,  now  by  order  of  the  War 
Department  in  eclipse — a  Botany  Club,  and  the  trade  boys  have 
their  Electrical  Club. 

Two  publications  are  issued:  the  Nesika,  the  Senior  Annual  and 
Review,  and  the  Kodak ,  a  weekly  newspaper.  The  staffs  of  the 
Kodak  and  Nesika  are  made  up  from  the  membership  of  the  High- 
School  Press  Club. 

Spatterinc  is  a  flourishing  short-story  club,  and  Tsitra  is  a 
sketch  and  art  club,  each  of  which  attracts  a  special  group  and 
offers  opportunity  for  individual  talent. 

An  idea,  borrowed  from  Morris  High  School,  New  York,  has 
led  to  the  formation  of  an  honor  High-School  Service  League 
founded  upon  the  ideal  of  service  to  the  school  and  community. 
Membership  is  conditioned  upon  active  service,  good  scholarship, 
and  satisfactory  conduct,  and  is  open  to  Juniors,  Seniors,  and 
college-year  students.  It  is  just  that  substantial  recognition  be 
extended  to  that  group  of  the  advanced  students  who  have  been 
ready  at  all  times  throughout  their  high-school  career  to  co-operate 
in  every  helpful  way. 

Triangle,  the  mathematics  club,  and  Sphinx,  the  history  club, 
complete  the  list  of  active  clubs  and  contribute  an  important  edu¬ 
cational  and  social  opportunity  to  students  interested  in  their  par¬ 
ticular  field. 

Two  groups  are  now  named  which  are  based  upon  scholarship. 
Four  times  each  year  the  high-scholarship  list  is  prepared  and  pub¬ 
lished.  It  contains  the  names  of  all  who  have  averaged  ninety  in 
their  work  for  the  quarter  preceding,  and  before  each  commence¬ 
ment  the  honor  roll  is  prepared  and  announced.  This  roll  contains 
the  names  of  those  who  have  maintained  an  average  record  of 
ninety  throughout  their  four  years  in  high  school.  From  this  roll 


34 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


commencement  speakers  are  chosen.  Between  15  and  20  per  cent 
of  the  membership  of  the  school  are  now  named  in  the  high- 
scholarship  roll  each  quarter,  and  about  20  per  cent  of  the  Seniors 
reach  the  honor  roll. 

Shot  through  the  whole  extra-classroom  organization  is  the 
social  motive.  Technical  training  is  the  first  object  of  most  of  the 
clubs,  but  the  opportunity  for  social  experience  is  ever  a  close 
second.  To  each  class,  club,  and  society  is  accorded  the  privilege 
of  one  or  two  parties  each  year,  several  of  which  start  at  six  or 
six-thirty  with  “eats,”  after  which  a  program  of  “stunts,”  music, 
and  games  is  carried  on  until  nine  or  nine-thirty,  when  the  party 
breaks  up.  In  the  spring  numerous  beach  parties  and  picnics  are 
held  by  the  smaller  groups,  and  a  limited  number  of  all-high-school 
dances  are  held  throughout  the  year  in  the  gymnasium,  invitations 
to  which  are  limited  to  members  of  the  school  and  faculty. 

Owing  to  the  long  school  day  and  the  resulting  lesson  preparation 
at  school  there  is  little  objection  to  opening  the  building  at  night 
from  the  standpoint  of  interference  with  study.  Hence  on  several 
evenings  of  each  week  throughout  the  winter  months  various  groups 
hold  their  regular  meetings  with  a  social  hour  following,  and  many 
basket-ball  games,  a  series  of  four  declamatory  recitals,  from  four 
to  eight  debates,  numerous  club  programs  and  parties,  and  musical 
evenings  are  held. 

Thus  the  school,  through  organization,  through  supervision  and 
administration,  through  the  curriculum,  and  through  the  various 
social  agencies  within  the  school,  is  attempting  to  assist  its  students 
in  meeting  and  solving  the  multitude  of  physical,  mental,  moral, 
and  social  problems  which  confront  them.  How  well  it  is  succeed¬ 
ing  the  Everett  citizenship  of  tomorrow  alone  will  prove. 


TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISED  STUDY 


EUGENE  D.  MERRIMAN 
Washington,  Indiana 

An  efficient  program  for  supervised  study  should  give  every 
teacher  the  opportunity  personally  to  direct  the  study  of  every 
student,  every  day,  for  every  class.  When  the  program  has  been 
worked  out  and  the  opportunity  provided  for  supervising  study 
on  such  a  scale  the  problem  of  supervising  technique  immediately 
arises.  If  the  proper  supervising  situation  be  provided,  what  will 
the  teacher  do  to  make  it  effective  ?  In  what  manner  will  she  set 
about  to  direct  the  thinking  of  the  students  ?  There  are  teachers 
who  will  feel  inclined  to  use  the  whole  of  the  double  period  in 
explaining,  amplifying,  and  discussing  the  topics  under  considera¬ 
tion.  There  are  others  who  will  merely  sit  quietly  at  their  desks, 
content  to  preserve  order  while  the  students  study. 

It  would  seem  to  be  of  value  to  formulate  a  technique  or  plan 
of  directing  students  in  their  study  which  teachers  may  consider 
and  follow.  It  is  my  hope  that  this  paper  may  offer  helpful  sug¬ 
gestions  upon  this  point,  which  may  at  least  create  discussion  and 
investigation,  invention  and  study,  of  methods  of  supervising  class 
and  individual  study. 

A.  Preliminary  Suggestions 

1.  The  discipline  of  each  teacher  during  the  entire  period,  and  particularly 
during  the  time  of  individual  study,  should  be  thorough  and  constant. 
If  indiscriminate  talking  or  careless  methods  of  spending  the  time  are 
permitted,  the  entire  plan  will  soon  be  brought  into  disrepute. 

2.  The  teacher  should  have  a  definite  plan  for  the  entire  period,  which 
should  provide  for  both  group  and  individual  work.  The  following 
might  be  utilized: 

a)  Group  resume  of  fundamental  ideas  previously  learned,  in  connection 
with  the  topic  (5  minutes). 

b)  Group  recitation  upon  the  previous  assignment  (30  to  45  minutes). 

c )  New  assignment  (5  to  10  minutes). 

d)  Individual  study  period — teacher  should  circulate  among  the  students 
for  a  part  of  the  time,  observing  their  work  and  assisting  as  may  be 
found  advisable. 


36 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


e)  Group  work  again  for  a  brief  clearing  up  of  points  of  common  diffi¬ 
culty. 

The  regular  period  work  should  be  supplemented  by  special  per¬ 
sonal  work  with  a  few  who  are  particularly  obtuse;  special  interviews 
should  be  arranged  for  this. 

3.  Student  self -effort  and  self -achievement  in  thinking  is  to  be  the  main  object 
of  the  teacher’s  supervising  efforts;  proper  organization  of  subject- 
matter  the  chief  line  of  student  effort. 

4.  Special  preparation  for  the  study  supervision  is  as  essential  for  success 
in  this  line  as  it  is  for  successful  recitations  or  assignments.  This 
preparation  should  enable  the  teacher  to  have  well  in  hand: 

a)  The  knowledge  of  details  of  the  particular  topic. 

b)  A  complete  acquaintance  with  the  study  helps  appropriate  and  avail¬ 
able. 

c)  A  thorough  understanding  of  the  study  methods  applicable  to  this 
particular  topic,  to  the  special  subject,  to  the  class  as  a  whole,  and 
to  the  special  individuals  in  the  class. 

5.  There  should  be  a  study  of  “study  technique”  carried  on  with  the  stu¬ 
dents — hardly  a  regular  class,  but  frequent,  or  at  least  occasional,  sug¬ 
gestions  and  investigations: 

a)  General  directions  for  efficiency  in  study  (printed  and  distributed  to 
the  entire  student  body). 

b )  Special  group  directions  (scan  the  general  directions  and  make  appli¬ 
cations  of  particular  phases  of  them  to  the  special  subject  and  topic 
about  to  be  studied).  Discussions  of  special  features  of  method  par¬ 
ticularly  applicable  to  topics  to  be  studied. 

B.  Class  Work 

1.  Group  activity  and  direction: 

a)  Resummarization  of  ideas  relating  to  the  topics  under  discussion 
which  have  been  studied  previously.  This  will  involve  the  recall  of 
facts  most  pertinent  to  the  general  conclusion  being  worked  out,  and 
the  relating  of  these  to  each  other  and  to  new  points  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  bring  out  their  logical  bearing  in  the  general  scheme  of  thought 
being  carried  on — a  general  backward-and-forward  look  upon  the 
road  of  thought  as  it  leads  on,  to  give  the  student  a  conscious  recog¬ 
nition  of  the  significance  of  the  steps  in  progress. 

b)  The  recitation  (this  is  the  regular  type  of  recitation  with  which 
teachers  are  familiar.  It  involves  a  working  over  of  the  work  pre¬ 
viously  assigned,  by  means  of  questions  and  answers,  topical  reci¬ 
tations,  special  reports,  oral  and  written). 

c )  The  assignment  (this  again  is  a  familiar  process,  but  one  which  is 
frequently  treated  carelessly  and  in  which  the  teacher  may  easily 
fail  to  do  effective  service).  Without  going  into  details  with  regard 
to  the  assignment  there  are  several  suggestions  which  may  be  of 
value: 

(1)  The  problem  to  be  worked  out,  or  the  particular  thing  to  be 
accomplished  or  learned,  should  be  made  clear  to  the  class  as  a 
whole. 


TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISED  STUDY 


37 


(2)  Definite  directions  as  to  text  material  to  be  read,  reference  books, 
supplementary  readings,  outlines  to  be  prepared,  maps  drawn, 
special  topics  by  individual  students,  methods  most  advantageous 
for  study,  results  expected,  and  forms  of  presenting  these  results 
should  be  carefully  given  and  explained  as  necessary. 

(3)  Features  of  the  assignment  involving  difficulties  known  to  be 
beyond  the  students’  abilities  to  work  out  for  themselves,  or 
which  require  more  time  than  is  advisable  to  work  them  out, 
should  be  explained  in  advance. 

(4)  Personal  applications  of  the  topic  should  be  intimated  to  secure 
interest. 

(5)  Exercises  involving  thought  and  investigation  should  be  assigned, 
to  direct  thinking  and  stimulate  interest. 

(6)  Opportunity  should  be  given  for  the  students  to  ask  questions 
or  to  offer  suggestions. 

Individual  help  and  guidance: 

This  is  to  be  given  immediately  after  the  assignment  and  during  the 
period  of  study.  It  is  expected  that  the  student  will  devote  this  time 
to  individual  effort  to  accomplish  the  general  work  assigned.  Some 
schools  restrict  all  study  upon  the  topic  to  the  school  study  period, 
home  study  being  forbidden.  I  would  think  it  advisable  to  have  certain 
phases  of  the  study — special  topics,  supplementary  reading,  by  some — 
be  done  at  home  or  outside  of  school  time.  During  this  period  the 
students  will  occupy  themselves  in: 

a)  Reading  the  text. 

b)  Memorizing  material  as  necessary. 

c )  Copying,  underscoring,  outlining,  notebook- work,  solving  problems, 
map-drawing,  organizing  ideas,  drilling — whatever  general  forms  of 
activity  may  be  necessary  to  master  the  assignment. 

The  teacher  is  occupied  in  some  such  method  as  is  most  advan¬ 
tageous  to  the  members  of  the  class.  I  do  not  feel  that  any  stereo¬ 
typed  plan  for  the  teacher  at  this  time  would  be  advisable.  The 
situation  may  introduce  a  different  plan  with  almost  every  period 
of  study.  Circumstances  connected  with  subject-topics,  or  student 
conditions,  vary  constantly,  and  these  must  determine  the  method 
of  procedure  most  helpful.  However,  certain  things  are  likely  to  be 
advantageous  and  necessary  for  almost  every  study  period,  and  these 
are  suggested  as  follows: 

(1)  Inspection  of  the  individual  work  of  the  student: 

(a)  Is  he  clear  as  to  the  problem,  as  indicated  by  his  reading  or 
by  the  written  work  he  is  preparing  ? 

( b )  Does  he  use  intelligently  the  study  devices  which  have  been 
introduced  to  him  by  the  study  supervisor?  What  is  he 
underlining  ?  Is  he  taking  any  kind  of  notes  ?  Is  he  writing 
out  a  resume  of  the  facts  given?  Has  he  found  a  good 
reference  and  does  he  seem  to  be  relating  its  material  prop¬ 
erly  to  the  topic  ? 

(c)  Are  the  expressed  results  of  his  work  correct  ? 


38 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


(d)  Has  he  presented  them  in  the  best  form  for  presentation  and 
explanation  ?  Are  they  clear  ?  Are  they  objective  in  form  ? 

(e)  What  effort  is  being  made  to  fixate  ideas  ? 

This  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  may  be 
acquired  by  a  personal  examination  of  the  student’s  work. 
In  many  instances  this  can  be  done  without  remark  or  ques¬ 
tion;  in  some  cases,  however,  questions  will  be  necessary, 
directions  will  have  to  be  given,  and  the  teacher  will  find  it 
necessary  to  sit  down  with  the  student  and  help  personally. 
At  this  time  the  teacher  can  quietly  make  an  appointment 
with  the  student  who  seems  too  hopelessly  befuddled  to 
master  the  problem  without  special  help  in  large  measure. 

The  teacher  will  observe  points  of  general  difficulty,  and 
these  can  be  presented  to  the  class  as  a  whole  and  explained. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  group  method  of  teaching 
is  extremely  valuable  as  to  time  economy;  individual  super¬ 
vision  of  study  is  largely  to  see  if  the  individual  is  effectively 
carrying  on  group  assignments,  and  to  relieve  personal  con¬ 
fusion  and  misconceptions  on  the  part  of  students  who  may 
be  slow  and  stupid. 

(2)  Correct  mistakes,  check  erroneous  methods.  (Always  endeavor 
to  lead  the  student  to  self-correction  rather  than  simply  to  cor¬ 
rect  for  him.) 

(3)  Direct  the  use  of  study  devices. 

(4)  Test  understanding  of  features  involved. 

(5)  Guide  to  correct  summarization. 

(6)  Suggest  additional  devices,  methods,  references. 

3.  Second  period  of  group  directions: 

a)  Explain  (or,  better,  have  some  student  whom  you  have  observed  to 
have  the  point  intelligently  worked  out  explain)  the  points  upon 
which  there  seems  to  be  rather  common  confusion. 

b )  Devote  some  forms  of  drill  or  exercises  to  impress  and  fix  the  ideas 
or  facts  which  are  to  be  of  greatest  future  value  in  the  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  the  topic  under  consideration. 

I  should  advise  the  teacher  to  keep  a  careful  record  of  the 
difficulties  manifested  by  individual  students  in  their  study  results. 
A  trifling  deflection  of  ideas  may  cause  a  student  to  be  ineffective 
in  the  whole  course  of  his  thinking.  A  very  slight  misunderstand¬ 
ing  of  a  general  principle  may  reflect  itself  in  the  entire  work  based 
upon  it. 

It  will  be  advantageous,  therefore,  for  a  study  supervisor  to 
understand  the  graphical  and  objective  methods  of  expressing 
results. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NUMERICAL  PROBLEM  IN  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  PHYSICS 


D.  P.  RANDALL..  J.  C.  CHAPMAN,  and  C.  W.  SUTTON 
Western  Reserve  University 


The  trend  of  modern  education  in  the  development  of  high- 
school  curricula  has  been  away  from  the  domination  so  long 
exercised  by  college-entrance  requirements,  and  rightly  so.  In  the 
subject  of  physics  this  tendency  has  taken  form  in  a  so-called 
“demathematization”  of  the  subject — an  expurgation  of  the  more 
involved  mathematical  proofs  and  conceptions,  and  the  substitu¬ 
tion  of  a  more  descriptive,  qualitative  method  of  treatment  for  the 
earlier,  quantitative  method.  How  far  this  process  should  be 
carried,  and  at  what  point  a  proper  balance  obtains  between 
descriptive  and  quantitative  methods,  is  still  unsettled.  In  the 
solution  of  this  question,  the  first  inquiry  to  be  made  is  the  extent 
to  which  the  present  teaching  accomplishes  its  purpose  in  securing 
a  thorough  grasp  of  the  underlying  principles  of  the  subject.  This 
paper  will  attempt  to  give  a  solution  to  this  problem  as  far  as  the 
subject  of  mechanics  is  concerned,  a  subject  in  which  of  necessity, 
if  it  is  to  be  taught  at  all,  the  quantitative  or  simple  numerical 
problem  must  have  a  greater  emphasis  than  in  any  other  branch  of 
elementary  physics.  This  paper  presents  the  results  of  a  simple 
test  in  mechanics,  in  which  the  problems  are  so  chosen  that  they 
satisfy  the  following  requirements:  (i)  they  cover  the  ground  of 
the  usual  high-school  course  in  mechanics;  (2)  they  range  from 
simple  to  fairly  complex  problems;  (3)  they  require  only  the 
very  simplest  arithmetical  calculations,  thus  reducing  mechanical 
errors  to  the  minimum. 

The  test  blanks  with  the  instructions  given  to  the  subjects  are 
shown  below. 


Physics  Test.  Mechanics 

Name.  .  . Date . 

School . Class . 

Age . Sex . How  many  weeks  have  you  studied  mechanics  ? 


Fill  out  the  above  blanks  first. 


39 


40 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


You  will  be  allowed  exactly  40  minutes  for  this  test.  Do  as  many  of  the 
problems  as  possible  in  that  time;  do  them  in  any  order.  When  you 
have  the  final  answer,  write  it  in  the  space  provided,  being  careful  to 
state  not  only  the  numerical  answer,  but  also  the  proper  unit  (e.g.,  15  lbs., 
15  ft.  per  sec.,  or  whatever  the  unit  may  be).  All  calculations  should  be 
done  on  loose  sheets. 

No  questions  may  be  asked  regarding  any  of  the  problems. 

Answer 

1.  A  grocer  has  a  platform  balance,  the  ratio  of  the  arms  of 
it  being  as  9  is  to  10.  If  he  weighs  out  20  lbs.  of  sugar 
to  one  man,  putting  it  on  the  right  pan,  and  20  lbs.  to 
another,  putting  it  on  the  left  pan,  how  much  sugar  will 

he  save  or  lose  in  the  two  transactions  ?  1 . 

2.  A  man  weighing  150  lbs.  stands  on  one  end  of  a  railroad 
rail  30  ft.  long,  which  then  balances  over  a  fulcrum  at  a 
point  3  ft.  from  its  middle.  What  is  the  weight  of  the 

rail  ?  2 . 

3.  How  many  lbs.  of  water  can  be  pumped  per  minute  from 

a  mine  500  ft.  deep  by  an  engine  expending  20  horse¬ 
power?  (1  h.p.  =  55o  ft.  lbs.  per  sec.)  3 . 

4.  A  dam  is  50  ft.  long  and  20  ft.  high,  and  the  water  just 
reaches  the  top.  What  is  the  total  force  against  the 

dam  ?  (1  cu.  ft.  of  water  weighs  62.4  lbs.)  4 . 

5.  The  water-level  in  a  tank  on  top  of  a  building  is  150  ft. 

above  the  ground.  What  is  the  pressure  in  lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  at  a  faucet  6  ft.  above  the  ground  ?  (1  cu.  ft.  of 

water  weighs  62.4  lbs.)  5 . 

6.  A  motor-boat  weighs  9,000  kg.  What  must  be  the 
volume  in  cubic  meters  of  the  underwater  portion  of 

its  hull?  6 . 

7.  How  deep  must  an  inverted  open  bottle  be  sunk  in  water 
in  order  to  reduce  the  contained  air  to  one-third  its 
initial  volume?  (Take  barometric  height  =  75  cm.  and 

density  of  mercury  =13.6.)  7 . 

8.  The  density  of  oxygen  at  o  degrees  and  1  atmosphere 
pressure  is  0.00143  gm.  per  cc.  A  100-liter  tank  con¬ 
tains  715  gm.  of  oxygen;  under  what  pressure  is  it  at 

o  degrees?  8 . 

9.  A  stream  1  mile  wide  is  flowing  4  miles  per  hr.  A  man 
rows  5  miles  per  hr.  How  long  will  it  take  him  to  row 

straight  across?  9 . 

10.  A  boy  is  able  to  exert  a  force  of  75  lbs.  How  long  a 
plank  (inclined  plane)  must  he  have  in  order  to  push  a 
350-lb.  truck  up  to  a  doorway  3  ft.  above  the  ground  ?  10 . 


THE  NUMERICAL  PROBLEM  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  PHYSICS 


41 


Answer 

1 1 .  A  train  starts  from  rest.  At  the  end  of  5  min.  its  velocity 
is  45  ft.  per  sec.  What  is  its  average  acceleration  in  ft. 

per  sec.  ?  n . 

12.  A  bullet  is  fired  vertically  upward  from  a  gun.  What 
must  be  its  muzzle  velocity  in  order  that  it  shall  rise 

10,000  ft.  ?  (g.  =  32  ft.  per  sec.)  12 . 

13.  A  3,200-lb.  automobile  starting  from  rest  attains  a  speed 
of  90  ft.  per  sec.  in  30  sec.  What  is  the  average  force  in 

lbs.  exerted  by  the  engine  ?  13 . 

14.  A  pile  is  to  be  driven  into  ground  which  resists  penetra¬ 
tion  with  a  force  of  15,000  lbs.  How  far  will  it  be  driven 
at  each  blow  of  the  320-lb.  ram  of  a  pile-driver  moving 

with  a  velocity  of  30  ft.  per  sec.  ?  14 . 

The  foregoing  test  was  applied  to  238  pupils  in  four  typical 
high  schools  in  a  city  system  representative  of  distinctly  progressive 
educational  methods.  Any  conclusions  drawn  as  a  result  of  this 
study  may  therefore  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  general  con¬ 
dition.  Of  the  238  subjects,  165  were  boys  and  73  were  girls.  The 
average  age  was  sixteen  and  one-half  years.  All  had  studied  mechan¬ 
ics  within  the  year,  devoting  on  the  average  60  periods  to  class  work 
and  48  periods  to  laboratory  (a  period  representing  40  minutes  of 
work).  The  test  was  administered  without  previous  warning  in  a 
single  40-minute  period,  no  questions  being  permitted.  The  results 
are  shown  in  Table  I. 

When  we  examine  the  combined  results  of  the  four  schools, 
taking  the  whole  body  of  pupils,  it  will  be  seen  that  on  the  average 
each  problem  is  successfully  solved  by  only  15  per  cent  of  the  pupils; 
no  problem  is  solved  by  more  than  69  per  cent,  while  two  straight¬ 
forward  problems  are  out  of  the  range  of  every  pupil.  This 
reveals  a  condition  truly  surprising.  The  extent  of  the  lack  of 
comprehension  shown  therein  of  the  numerical  relations  of  the  sim¬ 
plest  and  most  fundamental  principles  of  physics  is  certainly  star¬ 
tling,  and  lends  support  to  the  criticism  often  heard  that  the  average 
high-school  student  of  physics  acquires  merely  a  mass  of  disconnected 
facts,  with  little  notion  of  the  underlying  and  unifying  principles. 
It  is  clear  that  the  present  method  of  teaching  physics  fails  in  its 
object  in  so  far  as  it  attempts  to  give  the  pupil  any  knowledge  of 
the  principles  which  lie  back  of  common  numerical  problems. 


42 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


Number  of  Problem 

Mean 

Percentage 

H  VO  CO  H 

CS  W  W  W 

to 

sjduia^v 

VO  VO00  CS 
\0  lO'+lO 

55 

Tf 

iqs^ 

s;dui9iiy 

O  On  O  <N 

N  N  N  N 

CO 

CS 

CO 

*q3pi 

s^duis^iy 

00  CN  O  CO 

CN  CS  CO  CO 

00 

cs 

<N 

iqsi-a 

37 

4 

H 

o 

oo 

M 

sjduia^iy 

it  CS  M  CO 
VO  H  CO  M 

On 

CS 

}q3ni 

00  CO  CO  • 

O' 

o 

o 

cs 

S}dui9}}y 

it  -t  it  co 

N  N  1^1  it 

49 

o 

}q2itf 

O  M  CO 
t^oo  no  vo 

O' 

NO 

to 

o 

sidraa^y 

«  N  M  CO 

ONOO  00  00 

86 

Oi 

*qsra 

NO  CONCO 

to 

to 

it 

cs 

s;duig?;y 

m  On  w  O 
VO  VO  NO 

6o 

CO 

iqst-a 

On  vo  -  VO 

to 

to 

it 

cs 

s;dui9;iy 

cq  n  ^  w 

CO  <N  (N 

W 

CO 

iqSi^ 

00  N  •  ■ 

CO 

O 

oo 

cs 

sjduigny 

00  NO  CO  VO 

if  CO  H  M 

M 

CO 

vO 

^qsT'Ji 

no  r^\o  in. 

CS  H 

it- 

i  .60 

sjdrag^y 

Tj-  CO  O 
to  vo  CO 

37 

10 

iqst-a 

O0  N  CON 

M  M 

H 

M 

o 

00 

s;dui9^iy 

cs  NO  O  00 

t>-NO  VO  VO 

<N 

VO 

Tf 

iqSt^ 

VO  lO  Tf  CO 

CS  CS 

lO 

M 

to 

VO 

M 

s;dui9i;y 

it  CO  ON  O 

On  On  no  00 

it 

00 

CO 

^q^m 

It'D  to  CO 

vo  it  co  CO 

CS 

Tf 

o 

CO 

o 

S}dui9}}y 

t".00  O  vo 

On  00  00  t"- 

*0 

00 

w 

^q3ra 

NO  •  •  CS 

cs 

to 

o 

CO 

sidui9;iy 

VO00  CS  t"- 

O'  t^oo  00 

86 

M 

^q^ni 

OO  <N  lO  <N 

h  cq  co  co 

vO 

<N 

vo 

O' 

o 

S}dui9*}y 

COO  ltd 
OO  00  N  O' 

CS 

00 

No.  OF 
Pupils 

to  O'  rt  O 
NO  to  vonO 

oo 

CO 

cs 

P.E.  equivalent 

for  each 
problem . 

School 

A . 

B . 

C . 

D . 

Total 

THE  NUMERICAL  PROBLEM  IN  IIIGH-SCHOOL  PHYSICS  43 


Haziness  and  guesswork  in  the  realm  of  the  exact  are  the  fore¬ 
runners  of  lack  of  appreciation  of,  or  even  contempt  for,  scientific 
method.  In  the  opinion  of  the  authors,  if  anything  worthy  of  the 
name  of  physics  is  to  be  taught,  this  process  of  making  the  subject 
attractive  and  easy  by  de-mathematizing  it  must  cease;  for,  in 
attempting  to  eliminate  the  excessive  growth  of  algebraic  formulae, 
we  have  already  dangerously  weakened  the  sustaining  framework 
of  fundamentals.  We  seem  to  have  confused  the  application  of 
simple,  numerical,  quantitative  relationships  with  the  verification  of 
rigorous,  abstract,  mathematical  deductions  and  conceptions. 
Physical  science  is  essentially  a  matter  of  relationships;  and  it  is  in 
the  building  up  of  these  relationships  that  the  chief  interest  as  well 
as  the  chief  value  of  its  study  lies.  In  seeking  to  increase  the  interest 
content  of  our  subject,  let  us  not  overlook  this  point.  The  average 
pupil  is  never  so  enthusiastic  a  student  of  science  as  when  he  has 
correctly  “ figured  out”  the  result  of  a  given  set  of  conditions. 
Quantitative  measurement  in  the  laboratory  is  the  universal  prac¬ 
tice,  and  should  naturally  be  supplemented  at  every  step  with 
numerical  problems,  to  the  more  vital  correlation  of  classroom  and 
laboratory  interests.  Formulae  learned  by  rote  are  the  bugbear  of 
every  teacher  of  physics;  but  formulae  as  the  shorthand  expression 
of  thoroughly  understood  general  principles  or  relationships  are  the 
mightiest  supports  to  sound  physical  reasoning.  And  finally,  for 
the  inculcation  of  exact  thinking,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  learn  the 
“why”  and  “how”  to  a  given  phenomenon,  but  also  the  “how 
much,”  to  be  able  to  judge  the  relative  effects  of  interacting  causes, 
to  separate  the  more  important  from  the  less,  and  to  estimate  the 
result  with  some  degree  of  precision. 


o 

EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL 
COMMENT 


Department  oe  Superintendence  at  Atlantic  City 
February  25 — March  2 

The  proximity  of  an  army  cantonment  to  Atlanta  has  placed  such  a 
severe  tax  upon  hotel  accommodations  that  that  city  has  found  it 
impossible  to  care  for  six  thousand  additional  visitors.  Atlantic  City 
has  been  selected  instead. 

Doctor  Finegan  says: 

There  is  probably  no  city  in  the  country  which  has  so  many  fine  hotels  as 
Atlantic  City.  It  will  be  possible  to  provide  a  room  with  accommodations  in  a 
first-class  hotel  satisfactory  in  price  and  satisfactory  in  accommodations  for 
every  member  of  the  department.  One  of  the  finest  auditoriums  in  the  country 
with  a  seating  capacity  of  nine  thousand  and  with  perfect  acoustic  properties 
will  be  placed  at  the  service  of  the  department.  The  city  provides  many 
smaller  auditoriums  and  assembly  halls.  These  are  easily  accessible  from  any 
of  the  leading  hotels.  The  hotels  are  so  near  each  other  and  so  uniformly  good 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  choose  any  one  as  the  headquarters  for  the  department. 
In  order,  however,  to  make  it  possible  for  members  to  find  the  officials  of  the 
Association  the  following  hotels  will  be  chosen  as  the  headquarters  for  officers: 
the  Traymore,  the  Marlborough-Blenheim,  the  Chalfonte,  and  the  Breakers. 

Since  hotel  accommodations  are  so  ample  there  need  be  no  haste  in 
making  reservations.  We  expect  to  have  within  a  few  days  a  printed 
statement  showing  the  names  of  hotels,  the  rates,  and  all  information 
complete.  These  will  be  sent  to  the  press  and  to  state  directors  at  the 
earliest  moment.  The  rates  for  rooms  and  meals  seem  to  be  much  lower 
in  Atlantic  City  than  in  other  places  considered  for  the  meeting.  Tell 
your  friends  not  to  write  for  reservations  until  after  this  information 
arrives. 


Safeguarding  War  Appeals 

The  Indiana  State  Council  of  Defense  is  receiving  letters  from  school 
superintendents  who  object  to  the  never-ending  requests  that  come  to 
them  from  various  war-service  organizations  desiring  the  use  of  schools 
as  a  medium  for  their  operations.  While  many  of  these  organizations  are 


44 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


45 


doing  a  fine  service  to  the  nation,  it  is  manifest  that  there  should  be  some 
clearing-house  to  which  requests  for  entering  the  schools  should  be 
referred  before  receiving  recognition  by  the  school  authorities. 

In  order  to  provide  for  this  situation  the  State  Teachers’  Association 
at  its  recent  meeting  in  Indianapolis  very  wisely  recognized  “  the  Educa¬ 
tional  Section  of  the  State  Council  of  Defense  as  the  official  committee 
for  guidance  and  advice  on  all  war-service  work  required  of  the  schools 
of  Indiana.” 

In  order  that  this  section  might  serve  the  schools  in  the  best  possible 
manner  in  this  respect  a  Committee  on  Approval  has  been  created  to  study 
the  problems  facing  the  schools  and  to  recommend  methods  of  action. 

This  committee  is  sending  to  all  superintendents  and  high-school 
principals  of  the  state  a  very  timely  letter,  the  wisdom  of  which  is 
apparent  to  all.  It  seems  probable  that  other  organizations  may  have 
to  take  similar  steps  for  their  self-protection.  The  question  is  not 
whether  we  shall  aid  all  commendable  war-service  activities,  but  rather 
whether  our  assistance  shall  be  prudently  given.  The  educators  are 
undoubtedly  on  the  right  track. 

1116  Merchants  Bank  Building 
Indianapolis,  Indiana 
November  16,  1917 

Superintendent  of  Schools 

Dear  Sir:  School  officials  are  advised  not  to  permit  any  person  or  organiza¬ 
tion  to  ask  school  children  to  sign  a  war  pledge,  either  for  a  financial  contri¬ 
bution  or  for  service,  without  first  giving  them  an  opportunity  to  talk  the 
matter  over  in  their  homes. 

We  believe  that  any  proposition  that  cannot  secure  the  support  of  our  boys 
and  girls  with  the  approval  of  their  parents  should  be  rejected  by  the  schools. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

J.  J.  Pettijohn,  Secretary  Educational  Section 
per  R.  E.  Cavanaugh,  Assistant  Secretary 
Approved:  Horace  Ellis,  Chairman 


College  Men  and  the  War 

Dean  F.  P.  Keppel,  of  Columbia,  pays  a  graceful  and  well-deserved 
tribute  to  college  men  who  are  thoughtfully  assuming  their  full  share  of 
the  burdens  of  the  war.  Columbia’s  honorable  record  is  being  duplicated 
proportionately  in  every  college  in  the  land.  Dean  Keppel  says: 

The  young  man  in  college  who  has  failed  to  ask  himself  how  he  may  best 
take  his  share  in  the  nation’s  responsibility  is  the  rare  exception.  Their 


46 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


action  has  been  marked,  not  only  by  proper  recognition  of  the  emergency, 
but  by  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  of  choice — from  the  glorious  risks  of  the 
Aviation  Corps  to  the  humdrum  work  of  tilling  the  fields,  or,  even  harder, 
decision  to  finish  a  course  in  order  to  be  of  greater  service  later  on.  Asa  whole, 
the  undergraduates  and  young  alumni  of  our  colleges  have  made  a  record  of 
which  the  nation  may  well  be  proud. 

No  one  except  a  few  paciphobes  who  had  been  alarmed  at  the  growing 
habit  of  undergraduates  to  think  for  themselves  feared  that  our  students  as 
individuals  would  stand  back  in  the  fear  of  hardship  or  danger  when  the  new 
call  to  arms  should  come,  any  more  than  they  did  in  ’61  and  ’98;  but  very  few, 
if  any,  realized  how  complete  a  revolution  in  our  apparently  hard-and-fast 
institutional  and  social  life  would  be  the  result,  or  that  this  could  come  almost 
as  a  matter  of  course.  The  students  gave  up  without  a  moment’s  hesitation 
their  cherished  games  and  gatherings  and  all  the  careless,  but  comfortable, 
routine  of  their  daily  lives.  In  Columbia  College,  for  example,  out  of  1,453 
students  who  registered  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  half-year,  no  fewer  than 
629  had  entered  some  form  of  national  service  before  commencement. 


Changes  in  College  Life 

Dean  Keppel  sees  also  certain  marked  changes  in  college  life  which, 
he  thinks,  will  certainly  be  the  inevitable  result  of  our  war  experiences. 

It  is  also  too  soon  to  foretell  what  permanent  changes  the  war  will  work 
in  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  colleges  and  in  student  life, 
but  that  these  changes  will  be  profound  there  is  little  doubt.  Faculties  and 
students  alike  will  have  already  learned  that  regulations  and  customs  which 
seem  to  be  of  the  very  essence  of  collegiate  structure  can  be  swept  aside  without 
shock,  to  say  nothing  of  catastrophe.  When  the  normal  course  is  resumed, 
many  of  these  will  never  be  restored  or  will  be  in  a  form  unrecognizable.  On 
the  other  hand,  certain  tendencies  which  had  been  at  work  sometimes  for  years 
preceding  the  war  will  be  greatly  accelerated  and  will  come  to  fruition  without 
the  bitter  struggle  which  would  otherwise  have  been  inevitable. 

The  change  in  the  Faculty  point  of  view  which,  of  course,  has  operated  and 
will  operate  with  varying  intensity  in  different  institutions  will,  I  think,  be 
along  the  following  lines: 

In  the  first  place,  the  parental  attitude  which  the  American  college  has 
always  maintained  toward  its  students  will  no  longer  be  limited  to  matters 
of  personal  morals  or  conduct,  but  will  include  the  student’s  public  usefulness,  a 
recognition  of  his  place  in  the  public  order.  It  will  mean  changes  in  the  cur¬ 
riculum  to  provide  for  such  usefulness,  not  alone  in  military  subjects,  but  in 
geography  and  international  studies  and  in  other  fields.  It  will  involve  also  an 
increased  realization  of  the  importance  of  the  physical  fitness  of  the  group  as  a 
whole,  as  contrasted  with  the  possession  of  winning  teams  of  specialists. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


47 


The  colleges  should  plan  to  profit  by  the  present  public  recognition  of  the 
part  played  by  the  non-technical  undergraduate  courses  and  by  the  best 
elements  in  college  life  in  producing  a  type  of  resourceful  young  men,  willing  and 
ready  to  take  a  responsible  part  in  any  national  emergency. 


The  Gary  System  in  New  York 

An  educational  tragedy  was  enacted  in  Chicago  when  the  first  school 
board  of  reasonable  size  was  inaugurated  under  a  weak  and  scheming 
city  administration.  Now  New  York,  about  to  inaugurate  a  board  of 
seven  members,  has  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Tammany.  The  irony  of  the 
situation  in  both  cities  is  not  unsimilar  to  what  occurred  in  Des  Moines 
a  few  years  ago.  In  that  city  the  first  city  commissioners  elected  were 
the  very  leaders  of  petty  politics  who  had  opposed  the  adoption  of  the 
commission  form  of  government.  Only  a  very  unintelligent  citizen 
would  allow  himself  to  be  prejudiced  against  a  small  board  by  what  is 
happening  in  Chicago  and  what  may  happen  in  New  York.  The  best 
plan  of  organization  known  cannot  rise  far  above  the  level  of  the 
officials  chosen  to  run  the  machine.  It  is  only  fair  to  add  that  friends 
of  Mayor  Hylan  assert  that  he  is  vigorously  championing  a  strict 
divorcing  of  the  board  of  education  from  interference  on  the  part  of 
the  city  administration.  Of  course  this  is  a  consummation  devoutly 
to  be  desired.  We  shall  suspend  judgment,  hoping  to  be  compelled  to 
apologize. 

Mr.  Wirt  may  no  longer  be  needed,  and  Mayor  Hylan  may  change  his 
mind  when  he  really  forces  the  placing  of  20,000  children,  now  on  full 
time  under  the  Gary  system,  back  on  part  time.  New  York  simply 
cannot  keep  pace  with  her  school  population.  Moreover,  Mayor  Hylan 
and  his  new  board  would  be  blind  indeed  to  ignore  the  almost  unanimous 
approbation  of  school  executives. 

One  district-school  superintendent  of  the  Bronx,  who  confesses  his 
initial  skepticism  of  the  system,  has  today  this  comment: 

I  have  now  been  for  more  than  two  years  engaged  in  reorganizing  some  of 
the  schools  of  my  district  in  accordance  with  the  Gary  plan,  and  here  are  some 
of  the  results  I  note,  as  shown  in  a  report  of  mine  which  has  just  been  published 
by  the  Board  of  Education: 

1.  One-half  of  my  children,  30,000  in  number,  are  in  Gary  schools. 

2.  So  well  are  the  parents  pleased  with  the  schools  that  during  the  first 
year  of  operation  scarcely  a  dozen  complaints  against  them  were  registered  in 
my  office  from  the  parents  of  all  these  children,  while  scores  of  requests  were 


48 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


made  for  transfers  from  regular  schools  to  Gary  schools.  The  recent  opposi¬ 
tion  to  these  schools  originated  in  the  lower  Bronx  and  in  parts  of  Manhattan 
where  there  are  no  Gary  schools. 

3.  Not  long  ago  the  so-called  Federation  of  Parents’  Associations  secured 
permission  to  hold  an  anti-Gary  meeting  in  one  of  my  Gary  schools,  where 
3,200  children  are  registered.  There  were  eight  or  ten  anti-Gary  shouters  who 
appeared  to  conduct  the  meeting,  and  the  audience  consisted  of  four  parents, 
all  of  whom  are  in  favor  of  the  Gary  plan.  The  organizers  of  the  meet¬ 
ing  forgot  to  publish  a  report  of  the  proceedings,  so  I  am  doing  it  for 
them. 

4.  The  duplication  of  eleven  schools  has  had  the  effect  of  giving  13,079 
children  who  formerly  had  a  four-hour  day  a  school  day  ranging  from  five 
hours  to  six  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  If  we  had  not  adopted  the  Gary  plan, 
twelve  of  my  schools  which  now  have  only  9,252  on  short  time  would  have  had 
22,331  on  short  time.  We  have  increased  the  capacity  of  the  buildings  about 
40  per  cent,  at  the  same  time  that  we  have  greatly  improved  the  equipment, 
enriched  the  course  of  study,  and  lengthened  the  school  day  for  the  child 
without  lengthening  it  for  the  teacher. 

5.  The  total  cost  of  this  short-time  reduction  and  improved  education  for 
the  eleven  schools  to  date  is  $368,373 . 60.  The  cost  by  the  old  plan  of  providing 
a  reserved  seat  for  each  child  would  have  been  $1,733,472,  without  improvement 
in  equipment  and  instruction. 

6.  A  uniform  graduation  test  given  to  the  8B  classes  of  all  the  schools  of 
my  district  last  January  produced  the  following  results: 


AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  OF  GROUPS  OF  SCHOOLS 


Subject 

Duplicate 

Regular 

Arithmetic  No.  1 . 

853 

80 

Arithmetic  No.  2 . 

74 

68.4 

Spelling . 

89 

82.2 

Composition . 

84 

80.7 

Reading . 

7i 

72 

Grammar . 

74- 1 

74-4 

Total  English . 

75-7 

75-3 

History . 

77 

77  •  7 

Geography . 

77-7 

79.8 

707.8 

690.5 

On  the  basis  of  the  total  number  of  points  scored,  the  duplicate  schools  are 
2 . 5  per  cent  better  than  the  regular  schools. 

7.  A  comparison  of  the  results  of  my  personal  classroom  inspections  in 
every  class  of  the  district  (1,500  in  number)  during  the  last  scholastic  year 
with  the  results  of  the  preceding  year  shows  these  results: 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


49 


GAINS  AND  LOSSES  (Points) 


Duplicate 

Regular 

Gain 

Loss 

Gain 

Loss 

Reading . 

0.9 

o-5 

22.0 

23 

1 .0 
0.7 
2.1 

Spelling . 

Etymology . 

Mean,  and  use .... 
Grammar . 

1-7 

CO  co 

d  d 

Arithmetic . 

o-3 

i-3 

Total . 

26.0 

03 

i-7 

5-1 

The  Passing  of  Literary  Dictators 

Mr.  A.  Francis  Trams,  in  a  recent  article  of  the  English  Journal , 
“  Bandmastering  the  Class-Period,”  emphasizes  a  point  dear  to  the  hearts 
of  all  the  new-epoch  teachers  of  English  as  well  as  of  other  subjects. 
He  insists  upon  the  obvious  absurdity  of  forcing  upon  students  ready¬ 
made  ideas  and  opinions,  of  furnishing  them  with  arbitrarily  defined 
formulas,  of  cramming  down  their  throats  huge  doses  of  informational 
material,  which  they  are  to  swallow  unquestioningly  because,  forsooth, 
their  elders  have  decided  that  its  prescription  is  “good  for  them.” 

More  and  more  we  are  coming  to  realize  that  such  systems  are 
destructive  of  initiative  and  independent  thinking;  they  can  result  only 
in  a  dwarfing  or  blasting  of  the  mental  life  of  the  individual.  We  are 
learning  to  agree  with  Mr.  Trams  that  “pupils  must  think  themselves  into 
the  faith  that  is  their’s  just  as  surely  as  grown  persons”;  and  “they 
must  realize  that  when  they  study,  the  only  thing  worth  while  for  them 
is  the  thing  that  happens  within  themselves.”  Thus  we  are  trying  to 
lead  them  to  do  voluntary  work,  to  establish  a  habit  of  thoughtful 
reasoning,  to  develop  the  critical  instead  of  the  passively  receptive 
attitude. 

We  are  trying  to  do  this.  And  we  need  constantly  to  remind  our¬ 
selves  of  the  overwhelming  importance  of  such  an  attitude  on  our  part. 
The  old  order  of  teacher,  “that  ponderous  reservoir  for  the  storing  and 
imparting  of  knowledge,”  as  Pendleton  aptly  terms  her,  is  still  with  us. 
The  literary  dictator,  the  professional  dispenser  of  approved  gems  of 
thought,  has  not  yet  altogether  vanished  from  our  midst.  And  alas! 
even  the  best  of  us  all  too  often  find  ourselves  astride  pet  hobbyhorses, 
declaiming  to  a  listening  class  our  opinions,  our  ideas  of  an  essay,  or  a 


5o 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


line  of  poetry,  instead  of  quietly  aiding  them  to  an  intelligent  discussion 
of  their  impressions,  their  reactions.  We  need  constantly  to  remind 
ourselves  that  teaching  can  never  be  truly  effective  until  it  becomes  a 
definite  spur  to  the  mental  activity  of  the  student,  a  stimulant  and  a 
goad  to  intellectual  effort  on  his  part.  We  need  to  remember  the  words 
of  Cardinal  Newman:  “ Enlightenment  consists,  not  merely  in  the 
passive  reception  into  the  mind  of  a  number  of  ideas,  hitherto  unknown 
to  it,  but  in  the  mind’s  energetic,  simultaneous  action  upon  and  towards 
and  among  these  new  ideas  which  are  rushing  in  upon  it.”  Our  business 
as  teachers,  therefore,  is  not  primarily  the  communication  of  facts; 
it  is  rather  the  development  in  our  pupils  of  this  formative  power,  this 
critical,  dynamic  force,  which  will  reduce  to  order  and  meaning  the 
objects  of  knowledge  and  “leaven  the  dense  mass  of  facts  and  events 
with  the  elastic  force  of  reason.” 


Penny  Lunches  in  Chicago 

For  a  time  at  least  no  child  in  Chicago  public  schools  is  to  be  allowed 
to  go  hungry  because  he  has  only  a  penny  for  his  noonday  lunch.  Orders 
to  this  effect  have  gone  to  the  principals  of  all  schools  in  which  penny 
lunches  are  served.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  school  year  it  was 
found  necessary  to  cut  down  the  luncheon  served  for  one  cent;  a  child 
was  given  either  a  bowl  of  soup  or  a  sandwich,  whereas  he  used  to  get 
both.  When  the  city  Board  of  Education  for  legal  reasons  refused  to 
appropriate  the  necessary  funds,  President  Davis,  of  the  Board,  spurred 
by  the  pressure  of  women’s  clubs,  offered  to  raise  $5,000  by  private 
subscription.  To  a  certain  extent  all  charity  is  open  to  the  objections  of 
“paternalism”  and  “breeding  paupers.”  But  public  charity  of  this  sort 
is  often  more  unwisely  expended. 


Letting  Down  the  Bars  and  Raising  Efficiency 

The  high-school  principals  of  Chicago  have  recommended  to  the 
Board  of  Education  a  radical  change  in  the  present  promotional  scheme 
for  high-school  teachers.  At  present  new  teachers  must  be  started  at  the 
bottom  and  apparently  attain  promotion  through  length  of  service 
rather  than  through  efficiency.  The  proposed  plan  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  new  instructors: 

1.  By  examination,  if  a  college  graduate  with  two  years’  experience  as  a 
high-school  teacher  outside. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


51 


2.  By  a  probationary  period,  if  a  college  graduate,  though  without  teaching 
experience. 

3.  By  committee  approval,  if  a  successful  teacher  in  an  outside  school;  or 

4.  By  choice  of  principal  to  fill  a  position  in  the  teaching  of  a  technical 
subject. 

Superintendent  Shoop  transmitted  these  proposals  to  the  Board 
without  recommendation,  although  he  acknowledged  merit  in  the  plan 
of  revision.  The  principals  naturally  believe  that  the  efficiency  of  their 
teaching  forces  can  be  materially  raised  by  the  infusion  of  new  blood, 
and  the  resulting  spur  to  all  teachers  to  keep  alert  and  progressive. 
The  proposal  ought  to  be  adopted. 


Supreme  and  Super  Superintendents 
Detroit :  From  the  “  Regulations  of  the  School  Board  ” ; 

He  shall  have  sole  power  to  nominate  and  to  assign,  transfer,  promote,  and 
demote  or  suspend  all  assistant  superintendents,  supervisors,  principals, 
teachers,  and  other  employes  of  the  board  of  education  as  hereinafter  provided. 
All  nominations,  promotions,  demotions,  suspensions,  assignments,  and  transfers 
of  employes  of  the  board  of  education  which  shall  be  made  by  the  superintendent 
shall  be  reported  in  writing  to  the  board  at  its  next  regular  meeting  and  shall 
stand  confirmed  unless  disapproved  by  the  board  by  a  vote  of  not  less  than 
four  members  of  the  board.  He  shall  have  immediate  control  of  all  assistant 
superintendents,  supervisors,  principals,  and  teachers.  All  directions  and 
suggestions  to  them  with  reference  to  the  performance  of  their  respective 
duties  shall  come  through  him. 

Chicago: 

Report  from  Special  Committee  on  Investigation  of  Appointments 
to  the  Educational  Department 

Your  Special  Committee,  to  whom  was  assigned  the  work  of  investigation 
of  the  nominations  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  various  positions  in 
the  educational  system,  submits  the  following  report : 

Your  Committee  has  held  conference  with  the  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
and  after  reviewing  the  various  recommendations,  respectfully  recommends 
that  report  No.  323,  providing  for  the  establishment  of  the  Department  of 
Research  and  Educational  Standards,  be  deferred  for  further  consideration 
by  the  Committee. 

That  Report  No.  324,  providing  for  the  appointment  and  transfers  of 
heads  of  departments,  be  adopted  with  the  exception  of  the  appointment  of 


52 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


Mr.  Orville  T.  Bright  to  the  position  of  Examiner,  which  part  your  Committee 
has  referred  back  to  the  Superintendent  for  further  consideration. 

That  Reports  Nos.  325  and  326  be  approved. 

Your  Committee  further  reports  that  complications  have  arisen  owing  to 
the  waiving  of  certain  appointments  that  have  been  made  by  persons  selected 
for  district  superintendents  which  render  it  necessary  to  readjust  certain 
reports. 

Your  Committee  therefore  recommends  that  Report  No.  336-B  be  deferred 
for  further  consideration  and  readjustment,  and  that  Report  No.  336-C  be 
approved  with  the  exception  of  the  transfer  of  Mr.  Henry  C.  Cox  to  the  Farra- 
gut  School,  action  on  this  to  be  withheld  until  there  is  a  certainty  that  a 
vacancy  will  occur  in  the  Farragut  School. 

Your  Committee  further  recommends  that  the  first  and  third  recom¬ 
mendations  in  Report  No.  336-D  be  deferred,  and  that  the  appointment  of 
Mr.  William  D.  Dodge  as  principal  be  changed  from  the  Burr  School  to  the 
Alcott  School  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Superintendent. 

Your  Committee  further  recommends  that  Report  No.  336-E  be  approved, 
and  that  Report  No.  336-F,  owing  to  the  waiving  of  two  appointees  in  this 
report,  be  referred  back  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  further  considera¬ 
tion. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Edwin  S.  Davis,  Chairman 
Albert  H.  Severinghaus 
Sadie  Bay  Adair,  M.D. 

Special  Committee. 

In  other  words,  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education  keeps  its  hold  upon 
matters  which  are  purely  administrative,  in  the  one  field  in  which  it 
is  imperative  that  a  superintendent  should  have  a  free  hand.  Whether 
or  not  there  are  factional,  partisan,  religious,  or  race  prejudices  back  of 
the  Board’s  action  on  these  various  reports  is  unimportant.  The  Board 
is  usurping  functions  which  belong  to  the  executive,  and  to  him  alone. 


Illinois  Schoolboys  and  the  Farms 

The  Illinois  State  Council  of  Defense,  by  the  aid  of  a  committee  of 
prominent  educators  under  the  chairmanship  of  State  Superintendent 
F.  J.  Blair,  is  planning  to  mobilize  25,000  high-school  boys  for  farmwork 
in  1918.  Twelve  thousand  will  be  available  from  Cook  County  alone. 

These  boys  will  be  enrolled  in  the  United  States  boys’  working  reserve 
early  in  January  and  their  curriculums  modified  so  that  they  may  leave  school 
May  1.  Throughout  the  state  more  than  25,000  boys  are  to  be  enrolled. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


53 


Beginning  February  i,  the  boys  enrolled  will  speed  up  on  their  studies  for 
the  ensuing  three  months,  and  in  addition  will  take  the  new  agricultural  course 
in  thirty  lessons,  which  is  designed  to  give  them  a  practical  knowledge  of  horses, 
livestock,  dairying,  poultry,  seeds,  fertilizers,  farm  tools,  gardening,  gas 
engines,  crops,  planting,  and  harvesting.  Last  summer  the  boys  went  to  the 
farms  without  preliminary  training,  and  their  efficiency  was  retarded  by  their 
“greenness.” 

For  the  work  they  do  on  the  farm  the  boys  will  receive  credits  in  their 
curriculum  equal  to  those  they  would  have  earned  if  they  remained  in  school 
during  May  and  June.  The  University  of  Illinois  is  a  party  to  this  agreement, 
and  other  universities  and  colleges  are  expected  to  follow  suit. 

In  order  to  make  the  agricultural  course  as  practical  as  possible  the  com¬ 
mittee  recommends  that  trips  be  made  by  the  boys  to  the  stockyards,  stock 
shows,  and  farm  exhibits,  and  the  use  of  motion  pictures  of  farmwork.  The 
teachers  who  put  in  extra  hours  giving  the  boys  six  months’  work  in  four  will 
have  their  vacation  periods  lengthened  correspondingly. 

The  government  points  out  that  boys  from  sixteen  to  twenty-one  years  old 
in  Germany  are  now  in  the  army,  and  asks  boys  in  the  United  States  to  show 
their  patriotism  by  enrolling  for  farm  work  for  the  vital  task  of  increasing  the 
food  supply.  Illinois  is  the  first  state  to  modify  its  school  system  because  of 
the  war. 


Drill  and  Individual  Differences 

Charles  Swain  Thomas,  in  his  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Second¬ 
ary  School ,  urges  teachers  to  drill  their  classes  in  certain  language 
elements  “every  day  until  every  member  of  the  class  habitually  gets 
ioo  per  cent.”  As  the  movement  for  minimum  essentials  gains  vogue, 
advice  such  as  this  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  and  unintelligently  followed 
by  many  English  teachers.  The  truth  is  that  every  composition  class 
contains  pupils  at  almost  opposite  poles  of  expressional  attainment. 
Pendleton,  reporting  his  experience  in  the  English  Journal ,  affirms  that 
in  a  recent  class  exercise  of  a  high-school  Freshman  group  some  pupils 
were  able  to  accomplish  more  than  ten  times  as  much  memory  work  as 
the  poorest.  He  has  pupils  who  submit  six  long  narratives  in  quick 
succession  while  their  fellows  are  laboriously  finishing  one  short  tale. 
To  be  sure,  Pendleton  is  speaking  of  individual  differences  pertaining  to 
expression;  but  what  he  says  is  equally  pertinent  to  differences  in  mastery 
over  the  mere  mechanics  of  composition. 

Apply  to  a  typical  high-school  class  of  25  pupils  Thomas’  doctrine 
of  drill  until  all  pupils  attain  100  per  cent.  At  the  very  beginning  of  the 
term  ten  pupils  may  be  masters  of  the  minimum  essentials  in  punctuation 


54 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


appropriate  for  this  grade.  For  these  ten  all  drill  in  punctuation  is 
wasted  time  from  the  outset.  But  for  the  good  of  their  fifteen  class¬ 
mates  we  may  probably  justify  drill  extending  over  a  reasonable  period. 
Every  composition  teacher  knows  that  after  weeks  of  drill  approximately 
five  of  the  original  twenty-five  will  still  be  woefully  deficient  in  punctua¬ 
tion.  If  now  we  assume  that  one  month  suffices  for  bringing  ten  of  the 
fifteen  up  to  a  level  of  reasonable  proficiency,  every  minute  of  drill 
after  that  time  is  waste  for  twenty  of  the  twenty-five.  According  to 
Thomas,  for  the  sake  of  the  five  who  have  not,  and  probably  cannot 
master  punctuation,  the  entire  class  is  to  be  kept  indefinitely  marking 
time. 

There  is  one  possible  way  in  which  Thomas’  dictum  might  be  literally 
applied.  A  well-conducted  composition  class  makes  it  possible  for 
pupils  of  varying  capacities  to  go  forward  at  different  rates  of  speed. 
Pendleton  keeps  in  the  same  grade  pupils  who  differ  in  narration  at  the 
ratio  i : 6;  who  differ  in  memorizing  ability  i :  io.  In  any  good  composi¬ 
tion  laboratory  there  are  many  periods  in  which  not  all  of  the  pupils 
are  engaged  in  the  same  activity.  We  may  therefore  think  of  the  five 
who  remain  deficient  in  punctuation  after  the  four  weeks’  drill  as  spend¬ 
ing  part  of  their  laboratory  time  on  the  same  troublesome  elements  for 
another  month  and  perhaps  another.  Meantime  their  classmates, 
busily  engaged  in  composition  projects  suitable  to  their  own  needs,  are 
spared  the  dry-rot  of  more  punctuation. 

Would  that  it  were  possible  for  someone  to  calculate  the  enormous 
loss  sustained  by  capable  pupils  who  are  regimented  with  dullard  class¬ 
mates.  In  no  department  must  this  danger  be  more  carefully  guarded 
against  than  in  English  composition. 


A  Recommendation  to  Principals 

Secure  from  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  No.  22,  1917,  entitled  The  Money  Value  of  Education,  prepared 
by  A.  Coswell  Ellis.  Free.  Ask  for  a  sufficient  number  of  copies  to 
enable  every  child  in  your  Freshman  class  and  in  your  eighth  grade  to 
read  the  bulletins.  Just  to  look  at  the  attractive  and  easily  understood 
graphs  will  be  a  powerful  inducement  for  ambition  to  stay  in  school. 
Four  years  of  high-school  education  means  a  lifelong  50  per  cent  increase 
in  earning  capacity.  Mr.  Ellis’  bulletin  shows  this  in  terms  any  boy  or 
girl  can  see. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


55 


Correlation  of  English  and  Content  Subjects 
(A  communication.  The  editors  invite  further  discussion.) 

To  the  Editor  of  11  School  Review”: 

Re:  criticism  in  November  number,  page  676,  of  the  Stamford 
(Conn.)  High  School  Conferences  on  Marking: 

First:  “Language  habits  are  best  acquired  and  maintained  in  con¬ 
nection  with  content  subjects;  the  proper  place  to  teach  composition 
is  in  close  association  with  the  written  and  spoken  word  of  content 
subjects.” 

Agreed. 

Second:  “Many  a  progressive  English  department  is  welcoming 
themes  written  by  their  pupils  in  classes  other  than  English.” 

So  do  I;  so  do  (almost  all  the  English  department)  “we.”  The 
co-ordination,  permeation,  and  even  supremacy  of  English  is  our  object 
too. 

Wherein  then  do  we  differ  ? 

1.  You  assume  that  all  teachers  will  teach  English — correct  mistakes, 
red-ink  the  composition  of  their  written  exercises,  etc.  We  don’t. 
We  have  pulled  our  heads  out  of  that  sand.  You  acknowledge  there  are 
some  “wasps.”  Perhaps  we  have  some.  But  we  have  also  many 
“ants”  who  are  so  intent  on  building  their  hills  that  systematic,  oppor¬ 
tune,  motivated  English  teaching  gets  by  them.  Our  content-subject 
teachers  by  no  means  ignore  the  composition  (especially  the  oral)  of 
their  pupils.  But  they  cannot  “follow  up” — follow  up,  the  greatest 
phrase  for  English  teachers  as  for  advertisers.  How  best  follow  up? 
Who  best  can  follow  up  ? 

2.  You  assume  that  our  “teachers  of  history,  Latin,  and  the  rest” 
maintain  that  they  have  no  concern  in  English.  Wrong.  They  have; 
and  they  manifest  it  probably  more  systematically  than  under  the 
hydra-headed  plan  of  every  teacher  a  theme-corrector. 

3.  “The  idea  that  a  class  exercise  in  any  topic  can  be  100  per  cent 
perfect  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  contains  grammatical  errors  is  about 
as  sensible  as  saying  that  a  man  is  100  per  cent  ready  for  a  dinner  party 
even  if  his  necktie  be  missing.” 

Mixed  figures,  though  clever.  Wrong  analogy.  If  he  is  hungry,  he 
is  ready  for  dinner;  he  thinks  so  anyway.  His  attire  being  faulty,  he 
goes  to  his  chamber  for  his  necktie,  not  to  the  dining-room.  If  a  student 
is  hungry  for  his  chemistry  work,  he  is  ready  for  that  dinner;  if  his 
English  attire  is  faulty,  why  have  him  put  on  his  grammatical  necktie 


56 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


in  the  lab  ?  Why  not  rather  in  the  English  chamber  where  he  can  make 
proper  selection  of  neckties?  We  both  agree  that  he  isn’t  ready;  but 
I  recognize  a  healthy  (chemistry)  appetite  and  capacity  for  digestion 
and  also  a  slovenly  (English)  attire  that  must  be  remedied  without 
impugning  his  love  for  a  good  dinner. 

4.  “A  fault  in  English  is  not  and  never  can  be  extraneous  to  the 

subject-matter  presented . The  most  weighty  fact  if  faultily 

presented  becomes  less  than  100  per  cent  perfect  in  its  functioning 
relations.” 

Let  me  answer  by  quoting  further,  “How  utterly  contradictory  to  the 
facts  of  life.”  My  plumber  is  not  worth  his  hire  because  he  informs  me 
that  he  “done  that  job  good”  ?  And  he  will  not  get  his  check  because 
he  spells  my  name  wrong  ?  The  drill  sergeant  isn’t  perfect  because  he 
abuses  good  American  gentlemen  in  cockney  English?  The  Senior’s 
project  in  physics  must  be  discounted  because  he  writes  its  description 
with  scientific  accuracy  marred  by  dearth  or  profusion  of  commas  ?  The 
maid  makes  excellent  pie,  but  doesn’t  make  the  bed  properly;  ergo,  she 
lacks  perfection;  therefore  I  will  not  recommend  her  as  a  pie-maker. 

5.  But  the  core  of  our  difference  is  that  you  seem  to  think  that  we 
separate  English  from  the  content  subjects  because  we  separate  the 
English  “marks”  from  the  content-subject  marks. 

OUR  PLAN 

Our  Stamford  plan  assumes: 

1.  Co-ordination  of  English  in  the  school. 

2.  Motivation  in  the  content  subjects  and  in  extra-school  experiences. 

3.  Full  recognition  of  ability  where  ability  is  shown.  “Render  unto 
Caesar.” 

4.  “Follow-up”  teaching  in  English  by  those  presumably  most 
competent. 

How  ?  One  illustration  will  serve  to  answer.  A  paper  is  turned  in 
on  Lloyd-George’s  plan  for  centralized  military  control.  “  The  data,  the 
facts,  and  the  substance”  of  the  paper  reveal  (1).  clear  definitions;  (2) 
research,  reading,  work;  (3)  organization  of  ideas. 

The  paper  is  clearly  an  “excellent”  one. 

But  it  needs  much  improvement  in  English.  The  history  teacher 
marks  it,  shows,  where  necessary,  the  relation  of  exact  expression  to 
clarity  of  thought.  He  marks  it  “excellent,”  however. 

The  English  teacher  on  a  required  and  periodic  round  collects  this 
paper  with  many  others.  This  collection  should  be  a  regular  duty. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEWS  AND  EDITORIAL  COMMENT 


57 


This  particular  paper  may  or  may  not  lead  to  special  conference  of  the 
English  and  the  history  teachers;  it  may  or  may  not  lead  to  a  series  of 
requisitions  upon  the  history  department  for  subsequent  work  of  that 
pupil. 

In  a  word,  our  English  department  goes  into  the  other  departments  to 
get  its  correct  point  of  view  in  teaching  the  English  of  those  departments; 
your  plan  is  for  the  other  departments — wasps,  ants,  and  bugs  (every  high- 
school  boy  thinks  there  is  at  least  one  in  every  faculty) — to  go  into  the 
English  work  and  only  half  do  the  job. 

Who  is  responsible  for  the  English,  anyway  ?  What  do  you  think 
of  any  system  of  divided  responsibility  ?  Which  administrative  plan  is 
really  “contradictory  to  the  facts  of  business  life”? 

Sincerely  yours, 

Frederick  S.  Camp 

Stamford,  Connecticut 
November  22,  1917 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


I.  RECENT  LITERATURE  IN  THE  FIELD  OF  VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION  AND  GUIDANCE 


FRANK  M.  LEAVITT  and  MARGARET  TAYLOR 
University  of  Chicago 


The  literature  of  the  first  decade  of  the  present  vocational-guidance  move¬ 
ment,  dealing  largely  with  the  need  for  vocational  education,  aimed  to  establish 
ideals  and  principles,  and  to  describe  the  organization  of  successful  schools 
which  had  been  developed  to  meet  the  new  educational  demand.  But  results 
were  meager;  there  was  more  literature  than  actual  accomplishment  in  terms 
of  established  schools  and  courses.  Today,  if  the  literature  on  the  subject  of 
vocational  education  is  to  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  its  progress,  the  move¬ 
ment  has  stagnated,  for  there  are  but  a  few  books  of  such  a  nature  to  be  noted. 
The  movement,  however,  has  not  been  retarded,  but  rather  it  has  reached  the 
stage  of  searching  inquiry,  where  a  halt  is  called  before  taking  definite  and 
widespread  action  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the  demonstrated  needs  of 
industry  and  of  the  individual  worker. 

The  field  of  vocational  education  and  guidance  is  a  sort  of  “buffer  state” 
between  two  well-defined  domains;  on  one  side  is  the  system  of  formal  educa¬ 
tion,  strongly  intrenched  in  tradition;  on  the  other  is  the  field  of  highly  organ¬ 
ized  business.  The  ideals  dominating  these  two  domains  are  not  easily 
reconcilable.  The  most  significant  literature  in  this  field,  therefore,  is  that 
which  deals  with  the  attempt  to  bring  school  and  employment  together  for  the 
benefit  of  the  children,  the  educational  institutions,  and  the  employers  of 
young  people. 

First,  there  is  the  literature  which  describes  surveys  of  industrial  conditions 
that  have  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  basis  for  industrial 
training.  Secondly,  there  is  that  which  discusses  the  selection  of  employees 
by  means  of  mental  tests,  or  the  analysis  of  occupations  to  discover  the  marked 
characteristics  of  those  who  have  succeeded  in  such  occupations.  Thirdly f 
there  are  the  textbooks  that  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  young  people 
who  enter  vocational  life  at  an  early  age. 

In  the  first  class  the  most  notable  recent  publications  are: 

i.  Bradley,  Harry.  Establishing  Industrial  Schools.  Riverside  Educational 

Monographs.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Deploring  the  years  wasted  in  ill-considered  experiments,  and  the  public 
money  foolishly  misused  in  the  impulsive  rush  to  adopt  vocational  education, 

58 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


59 


Mr.  Bradley  offers  this  “primer  full  of  analysis,  illustrations,  statement  of 
principles,  and  wise  suggestions  for  the  administrator  facing  the  new  and  diffi¬ 
cult  problem  of  getting  the  right  kind  of  vocational  education  started  in  his 
community.”  The  problems  and  methods  of  an  industrial  and  educational 
survey  of  a  community  are  discussed;  the  necessity  for  advisory  boards  and 
trade  agreements  in  determining  courses  of  study  and  types  of  schools  is  urged; 
and  methods  of  selecting  and  training  industrial  teachers  are  suggested.  The 
author  accomplishes  his  aim  of  giving  a  community  a  working  basis  for  estab¬ 
lishing  better  co-operation  between  state  education,  the  children  of  labor,  and 
employers  in  industry. 

2.  Report  of  the  Richmond ,  Indiana,  Survey  for  Vocation  Guidance.  The 

Indiana  State  Board  of  Education.  Educational  Bulletin  No.  18,  Decem¬ 
ber,  1916. 

Under  the  expert  guidance  of  Robert  J.  Leonard,  professor  of  vocational 
education  in  Indiana  University,  the  Indiana  State  Board  of  Education  has 
attempted  “to  ascertain  from  a  study  of  the  industries  of  a  particular  com¬ 
munity  the  facts  that  would  be  needed  to  outline  an  efficient  and  economic 
program  of  vocational  training  for  that  community,”  and  thus  to  get  help  for 
solving  the  problem  of  providing  vocational  training  for  the  state  as  a  whole. 
Surveys  have  been  made  of  the  people,  the  industries,  and  the  schools  of 
Hammond,  Evansville,  Madison,  Richmond,  and  Jefferson  County.  This 
survey  contains: 

Part  I :  a  brief  statistical  study  of  the  city. 

Part  II:  comprehensive  occupational  information  regarding  industrial 
processes,  distribution  of  workers,  educational  requirements,  physical  sur¬ 
roundings,  and  wages  in  all  of  the  industrial,  commercial,  household,  and 
juvenile  employments  in  the  city. 

Part  III:  a  report  of  present  provisions  for  vocational  education  and 
survey-committee  recommendations. 

The  intelligent  and  consistent  recommendations  of  the  survey  committee 
are  possible  only  after  the  painstaking  care  in  investigation  that  gives  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  conditions.  This  survey  should  serve  as  an  inspiration 
to  any  city  desiring  to  establish  a  modern,  effective  course  of  study  based  upon 
real  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the  community. 

3.  The  Selection  and  Training  of  Teachers  for  State- Aided  Industrial  Schools. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education.  Bulletin 

19  (revised).  New  York,  1917. 

As  specialized  courses  in  prevocational  schools,  continuation  schools, 
trade  schools,  and  evening  schools  become  more  general  and  the  problem  of 
finding  teachers  for  them  becomes  more  acute,  boards  of  education  everywhere 
will  welcome  the  clear,  concise  statement  of  the  qualifications,  methods  of 
selection,  and  training  of  teachers  for  service  in  such  schools,  set  forth  in 
Bulletin  19  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 


6o 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


To  replace  the  present  inadequate  methods  of  certification  of  these  teachers,  a 
plan  is  proposed  for  separate  examination  of  instructors  for  industrial  schools. 
To  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  properly  trained  teachers,  suggestions  are 
made  for  their  preliminary  training  in  combined  technical  and  normal  courses, 
and  their  continued  training  in  institutes  and  summer  courses.  The  recom¬ 
mendation  is  made  that  certification  and  training  of  teachers  in  state-aided 
industrial  schools  be  under  the  control  of  a  separate  board  in  charge  of  indus¬ 
trial  education.  The  purpose  of  the  society  and  the  personnel  of  the  com¬ 
mittee  making  this  report  give  weight  to  its  recommendations. 

4.  What  is  the  Smith-Hughes  Bill?  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 

Industrial  Education.  Bulletin  25.  New  York,  1917. 

Since  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Vocational  Education  bill,  Feb¬ 
ruary  23,  1917,  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Educa¬ 
tion  has  been  besieged  with  requests  for  information  as  to  the  essential  points 
of  the  bill  and  what  steps  the  states  should  take  to  secure  the  benefits  of  the 
act.  This  bulletin  answers  such  questions  clearly  and  concisely,  includes 
the  full  text  of  the  bill  itself,  and  gives  sensible  advice  as  to  principles  and 
policies  that  should  underlie  state  legislation  for  a  state  system  of  vocational 
education. 

5.  Snively,  Edward  T.  The  Boy  and  the  School.  Bulletin  No.  32,  Engineer¬ 

ing  Extension  Department  of  Iowa  State  College.  Ames,  Iowa,  1917. 

The  impetus  toward  vocational  education,  given  by  the  passage  of  the 
Smith-Hughes  act,  has  set  in  motion  many  investigations  contemplating  a 
closer  co-ordination  of  the  schools  and  industry.  The  Partial  Survey  of  the 
Public  Schools  of  Fort  Dodge ,  Iowa ,  contains,  in  twenty  pages,  an  extremely 
practical  study  of  boys  leaving  school  early,  their  age  and  grade,  cause  of 
leaving,  and  earning  capacity.  The  failure  of  the  school  to  offer  training 
necessary  for  industry  is  acknowledged,  the  attempts  made  in  other  cities  to 
meet  the  need  are  rapidly  summarized,  and  prevocational  work  is  suggested 
as  the  immediate  solution  for  Fort  Dodge.  In  an  appendix  the  engineering 
extension  department  of  the  Iowa  State  College  offers  assistance  in  organizing 
vocational  classes,  helpful  publications,  and  practical  short  courses.  The 
pamphlet  is  concise,  concrete,  and  convincing. 

6.  Allen,  Frederick  J.  Business  Employments.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co. 

Accurate  and  detailed  information  regarding  conditions  in  business, 
valuable  alike  for  vocational  counselors,  for  young  people  entering  occupations, 
and  for  ambitious  workers  desiring  promotion,  is  presented  in  Frederick  J. 
Allen’s  Business  Employments.  Through  type  studies  of  the  shoe  industry, 
the  department  store,  and  banking,  business  organization  is  described  from  its 
beginning  among  stockholders,  through  its  board  of  directors,  general  managers, 
and  efficiency  engineers,  to  the  least  of  the  helpers,  office-boy  or  factory  worker. 
In  each  branch  the  opportunities  for  young  employees  are  pointed  out,  the 
personal  qualifications  necessary,  the  duties  of  the  position,  the  sanitary  and 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


61 


moral  conditions  of  the  work,  the  rate  of  pay,  and  the  probabilities  for  ad¬ 
vancement.  The  simplicity  of  the  presentation  and  the  good  sense  evinced  in 
the  advice  given  make  this  little  volume  useful  as  a  textbook  for  a  high-school 
class;  the  reliability  of  information,  the  statistical  tables,  and  reading  lists 
make  it  valuable  as  a  refernece  book  for  mature  professional  readers. 

In  the  second  class  the  following  are  worthy  of  mention: 

1.  Hollingsworth,  H.  L.  Vocational  Psychology.  New  York:  Appleton 

&  Co. 

This  notable  contribution  to  applied  psychology  attacks  the  threefold 
problem  of  how  the  individual  may  achieve  a  knowledge  of  his  own  mental  and 
instinctive  constitution,  with  his  capacities  and  aptitudes,  how  the  individual 
may  acquire  information  regarding  the  traits  required  in  the  various  occupa¬ 
tions,  and  how  the  employer  may  determine  the  fitness  of  young  candidates 
for  employment.  In  analysis  of  personal  characteristics,  particularly  in  tests 
of  intelligence,  there  has  been  a  great  advance.  Professor  Hollingsworth 
summarizes  and  evaluates  the  various  psychological  tests  that  have  been 
developed,  condemning  especially  phrenology  and  physiognomy  for  “futile 
attempts  to  diagnose  mental  constitution  on  the  basis  of  bodily  structure.” 
The  special  chapter  on  “The  Vocational  Aptitudes  of  Women”  reports  no 
scientific  proof  of  differences  between  the  sexes  in  intellect  or  mental  vari¬ 
ability.  The  study  of  the  possibility  of  judging  with  fair  accuracy  some 
personal  traits  through  self-analysis  or  judgment  of  associates  proves  scien¬ 
tifically  the  value  of  “average  opinion.” 

A  consideration  of  the  “Curriculum  as  a  Vocational  Test”  shows  some 
correlation  between  school  success  and  interests  and  later  success  and  interests 
in  vocations.  To  analyze  the  qualities  needed  for  the  various  occupations 
interesting  tests  have  been  devised;  but  the  need  for  reliable  vocational 
psychographs  is  urged.  The  helpfulness  of  psychological  tests  for  selecting 
employees  or  in  choosing  a  vocation  is  not  yet  fully  determined,  for  the  tests 
themselves  must  be  compared  with  actual  experience  and  a  coefficient  of 
correlation  be  determined.  The  conclusion  is  that  vocational  guidance  must 
depend  upon  the  discovery  of  interests  and  incentives,  and  the  direction  of 
these  through  the  giving  of  information  and  of  industrial  and  prevocational 
education. 

A  classified  bibliography  for  vocational  psychology  and  an  appendix  of 
sample  tests,  blanks,  and  standards  add  to  the  usefulness  of  the  book,  as  does 
its  simple,  popular  style.  This  scholarly  summary7-  of  the  present  achieve¬ 
ments  in  a  comparatively  new  branch  of  science  will  appeal  most  to  professional 
educators  and  vocational  counselors. 

2.  Merton,  Holmes  W.  How  to  Choose  the  Right  Vocation.  New  York: 

Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

This  overambitious  attempt  to  “meet  the  need  of  individuals  for  guidance 
in  the  choice  of  a  vocation — so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so  without  expert 


62 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


personal  counseling” — defeats  its  end  by  being  so  cumbersome  that  it  is  not 
convincing.  The  guidance  is  given:  first,  by  a  practical  analysis  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual’s  abilities  and  characteristics;  secondly,  by  mental  tests  for  discovering 
the  individual’s  vocational  aptitudes;  and,  thirdly,  by  enumerating  the  dif¬ 
ferent  mental  abilities  and  character  traits  specifically  required  in  the  occupa¬ 
tions.  The  right  choice  of  a  vocation  is  to  be  made  by  comparing  the  personal 
abilities,  as  determined  by  720  self-testing  questions  and  the  vocational  require¬ 
ments  of  any  of  the  1,400  distinctive  vocations  listed,  and  finding  a  correspond¬ 
ence  between  the  two.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  but  those  so  intelligent  as 
to  need  little  guidance  could  guide  themselves  by  this  elaborate  system.  The 
book  is  worthy  of  study  by  vocational  counselors  for  the  suggestiveness  of  the 
questions  and  the  descriptions  of  characteristics. 

3.  Kemble,  William  F.  Choosing  Employees  by  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 

New  York:  Engineering  Magazine  Co. 

In  contrast  with  pyschological  experts,  who  are  not  yet  completely  con¬ 
fident  of  the  practical  value  of  their  tests  for  determining  fitness  for  occupations, 
Mr.  Kemble  assures  his  readers  that  “the  science  of  management  has  advanced 
to  a  point  where  we  can  attain  a  very  large  part  of  the  ideal  of  fitting  every 
man  to  his  job  before  putting  him  to  work.”  He  proposes  by  a  series  of  tests 
to  arrange  a  staff  of  men  in  the  approximate  position  of  their  ability  and  to 
pick  out  the  essential  characteristics  needed  for  a  given  job.  Besides  the 
usual  physical  tests  and  facial  analysis,  the  book  adds  many  interesting  devices 
for  discovering  strength  of  memory,  initiative,  power  of  invention,  accuracy, 
concentration,  and  artistic  sense,  and  considers  the  need  of  each  of  these  in 
innumerable  trades  and  occupations.  All  of  these  tests,  on  sheets  convenient 
for  filling,  are  for  sale  to  employers. 

In  an  extremely  popular  style  this  “manual  of  practice”  promises  large 
and  quick  results  and  is  a  temptation  to  employers  who  desire  efficiency  in 
their  working  force. 

4.  Personnel  and  Employment  Problems  in  Industrial  Management.  The 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 

A  series  of  lectures  made  by  practical  men  before  employment  managers’ 
associations,  and  reports  of  personal  experiences  with  large  bodies  of  employees 
in  big  industrial  concerns,  with  a  few  theoretical  essays  by  psychologists,  has 
been  collected  by  the  editors,  Meyer  Bloomfield  and  Joseph  H.  Willits,  and 
made  into  a  volume  very  useful  to  those  interested  in  the  science  of  employ¬ 
ment  and  of  personnel  management.  The  social-service  work,  employees’ 
record  cards,  and  promotion  schemes  of  the  Ford  Plant,  the  Curtis  Publishing 
Company,  the  Western  Electric  Company,  and  other  significant  practical 
efforts  in  this  field  are  described,  in  five-  to  twenty-page  papers,  by  men  actually 
engaged  in  the  work.  The  personnel  of  the  working  force  as  an  element  in 
efficient  management  emphasizes  the  work  of  the  employment  department; 
this  series  of  papers  treats  of  the  securing,  selecting,  and  assigning  of  employees, 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


63 


the  methods  of  reducing  unnecessary  hiring  and  firing,  methods  of  interviewing, 
examining,  and  training  new  employees,  and  keeping  record  of  work,  wages, 
and  promotion.  They  show  how  much  attention  has  been  given  recently  to 
these  problems  and  how  much  has  been  actually  accomplished. 

Among  the  recent  textbooks  for  pupils  who  expect  to  enter  vocational  life 
early  are: 

1.  Griffith,  Ira  Samuel.  Carpentry.  Peoria:  Manual  Arts  Press. 

This  elementary  treatise  of  the  essentials  of  carpentry  is  one  of  the  best 
textbooks  for  students  beginning  a  study  of  this  subject.  Very  clear  directions 
for  actual  manipulation  of  material  are  given,  practical  methods  for  estimating 
lengths  and  amounts,  and  short  discussions  of  trade  conditions  and  conventions. 
The  work  in  estimating  costs  is  to  be  done  from  architects’  plans,  with  lumber 
and  millwork  catalogues.  A  very  valuable  appendix  of  tables  of  natural 
trigonometric  functions,  strength  of  materials,  and  short  cuts  for  miscella¬ 
neous  estimating  should  be  useful  even  to  trained  carpenters.  The  value 
of  this  handbook,  written  by  a  man  who  knows  the  trade,  is  increased  by 
the  many  excellent  photographs  and  working  drawings  that  accompany 
the  text. 

2.  Leavitt,  Frank  M.,  and  Brown,  Edith.  Elementary  Social  Science. 

Boston:  Macmillan. 

By  developing  among  the  boys  who  will  be  the  citizens  and  workers  of  the 
next  generation  a  healthy  curiosity  about  civic,  social,  and  economic  con¬ 
ditions  observable  in  everyday  life,  Elementary  Social  Science  presents  briefly 
and  simply  the  elementary  facts  of  the  sciences,  and  treats  of  land,  labor, 
capital,  management,  poverty,  ignorance,  disease,  and  crime  in  a  way  that  is 
interesting  to  boys  and  that  establishes  a  point  of  view  for  interpreting  modern 
conditions  without  prejudice.  The  suggested  problems  are  a  stimulus  to 
research  and  independent  thinking,  and  the  discussions  familiarize  pupils 
with  the  vocabulary  of  industry  and  of  civics.  The  text  is  prepared  especially 
for  students  in  vocational,  technical,  and  commercial  high  schools. 

3.  Dooley,  William  H.  Vocational  Mathematics  for  Girls.  Boston:  D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co. 

Among  several  books  in  the  field  of  mathematics  Vocational  Mathematics 
for  Girls  seems  unusually  well  adapted  to  its  purpose.  Mr.  Dooley,  the 
author  of  Vocational  Mathematics,  Textiles,  etc.,  has  had  a  considerable 
experience  in  intermediate  and  secondary  technical  schools.  The  method 
consists  in  “arousing  an  interest  in  mathematics  by  showing  its  value  in  daily 
life.”  Most  sensible  discussions  of  the  distribution  of  incomes,  the  cost  of 
furnishing  a  house,  economy  in  buying  clothing,  and  the  value  of  investments 
precede  the  groups  of  problems  on  these  subjects.  Arithmetic  for  dressmakers, 
simple  bookkeeping  for  office  assistants,  and  samples  of  civil-service-examina¬ 
tion  questions  are  some  of  the  applications  of  arithmetic  made. 


64 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


The  girl  who  completes  a  course  using  this  textbook  has  much  more  than 
arithmetical  knowledge  in  the  fund  of  general  information,  the  rules  for  quick 
estimating,  and  the  general  good  sense  in  spending  money  that  she  will  gain 
through  the  discussion  and  working  of  the  problems. 


II.  COMMENT  ON  CURRENT  EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 

i.  Two  handbooks  for  normal  schools  and  colleges  on  methods  of  surveying. — 
School  systems  and  higher  educational  institutions  have  for  some  years  past 
exhibited  the  influence  of  the  spirit  of  self-examination  and  educational  stock¬ 
taking  which  is  abroad  in  this  country  by  committing  themselves  to  the 
“survey”  method.  Three  points  were  clearly  recognized  by  the  institutions 
and  persons  concerned:  (i)  that  the  first  step  in  improvement  of  school 
efficiency  must  be  the  process  of  evaluating  present  conditions;  (2)  that  this 
evaluation  must  be  carried  on  by  persons  trained  in  the  procedure,  namely, 
disinterested  specialists  from  the  universities,  foundations,  and  bureaus;  (3) 
that  once  done  by  such  a  group  the  greatest  good  to  the  system  or  to  the  institu¬ 
tion  would  come  only  through  the  setting  up  of  a  continuing  inventory  by  the 
school  system  itself  which  would  employ  methods  of  detailed  comparative 
analysis.  Necessarily  the  early  surveys  of  school  systems  and  institutions 
having  to  blaze  out  a  new  type  of  technique  in  an  unexplored  field  were  largely 
of  the  blanket  inventory  type.  Some  were  well  done  and  resulted  in  great 
profit  to  the  school  systems  in  question,  as  witness  the  Year-Long  Study  of  the 
Cleveland  School  System  by  Dr.  Ayres  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  Others 
were  hastily  done  by  individuals  relatively  unequipped  to  do  the  task,  and 
resulted  in  little  permanent  good  to  the  school  system. 

At  the  suggestion  of  some  of  these  surveyors  school  systems  more  recently 
have  been  conducting  continuing  inventories,  which  study  in  detail  particular 
school  activities,  and  by  close  co-operation  of  school  officials  and  of  outside 
specialists  carry  on  continuous  studies  of  methods  of  improving  educational 
work.  Such  procedure  is  well  illustrated  by  the  work  of  Dr.  H.  L.  Smith, 
Bloomington,  Indiana,  which  work  was  commented  on  in  these  columns  last 
month. 

It  has  been  recognized  for  some  time  that  there  is  now  needed  a  critical 
but  constructive  method  of  analytical  procedure  which  can  be  put  in  the  hands 
of  school  people  themselves  to  supplement  the  methods  of  surveying  that  have 
already  been  established.  Active  in  the  early  days  of  the  survey  movement, 
especially  as  it  related  to  the  state  and  higher  educational  institutions,  was 
Mr.  W.  H.  Allen.  In  recent  years  he  has  been  trying  to  short-cut  the  neces¬ 
sarily  slow  process  of  educating  school  officials  to  the  advantages  of  the  self¬ 
survey — the  continuing  inventory — which  our  early  survey  specialists  hope  to 
see  come  eventually.  It  has  been  recognized  that  one  of  the  most  expeditious 
ways  of  getting  school  and  college  men  to  do  this  is  to  put  in  their  hands  manuals 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


65 


of  procedure  of  carrying  it  out — books  which  will  give  the  entire  technique  of 
“self-survey”  even  to  the  printing  of  complete  lists  of  specific  questions  which 
should  be  asked  concerning  the  status  of  each  educational  activity. 

Mr.  Allen  has  centered  his  attention  on  the  normal  schools  and  colleges. 
The  results  of  his  labors  are  embodied  in  two  handbooks  of  self-survey  tech¬ 
nique,  one  for  normal  schools1  and  one  for  colleges  and  universities.2  These 
books  are  “case  books”  in  educational  analysis,  planned  primarily  for  the 
normal  school  and  college  administrator,  secondarily  for  teachers  in  these  two 
types  of  institution  and  for  interested  laymen.  The  normal-school  book  is 
almost  entirely  based  upon  the  Wisconsin  State  Normal  School  Survey, 
conducted  in  large  by  Superintendent  A.  N.  Farmer.  It  discusses  such 
questions  as:  the  reasons  for  self-survey;  the  steps  which  are  necessary  in 
conducting  a  self-survey;  making  self-surveys  build  as  they  go.  It  reveals  a 
distinctly  hypercritical  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  writers  toward  nearly  all  of 
the  survey-work  that  has  been  done  by  other  persons.  The  book  discusses 
problems  of  administration,  course  of  study,  supervision,  classroom  instruction, 
extra-curricula  activities  of  students,  and  the  technique  of  reporting  surveys. 
The  college  book  leaves  the  discussion  of  specific  technique  of  conducting  a 
survey  to  the  normal-school  book  and  devotes  its  attention  to  the  detailed 
study  of  such  problems  as  these:  the  survey  movement  in  higher  education 
(including  another  hypercritical  discussion  of  who  shall  make  surveys);  pro¬ 
cedure  for  the  separate  college  survey;  relation  of  trustees  to  president  and 
faculty;  the  executive  and  business  efficiency;  faculty  government;  extra¬ 
curricula  activities  of  students;  the  course  of  study;  instructional  efficiency; 
relation  with  college  communities. 

These  books  do  not  theorize.  They  leave  construction  of  principles  to  the 
reader  and  give  only  the  statement  of  specific  facts.  Illustrative  cases  are 
offered  for  every  point  made.  The  best  available  literature  is  pointed  out  in 
connection  with  the  discussion  of  each  activity.  The  statements  with  respect 
to  the  literature  are  not  general  but  specific — the  material  is  evaluated  in 
detail.  Sample  forms,  charts,  record  blanks,  are  given.  Quotations  are  made 
of  the  procedure  of  progressive  institutions  with  respect  to  each  activity.  The 
college  book  gives  a  resume  of  progressive  practice  in  at  least  fifty  colleges  and 
universities  of  the  country. 

Educational  books  are  of  value  as  they  do  either  one  of  two  things:  first, 
as  they  lead  to  action  of  a  progressive  sort  which  is  characterized  by  the 
improvement  of  some  educational  activity;  secondly,  as  they  help  to  formulate 
educational  thought  along  large,  progressive  lines.  Technique  books  naturally 
can  contribute  to  action  more  immediately  than  can  books  of  principles  or  of 

1 W.  H.  Allen  and  C.  G.  Pearse,  Self -Surveys  by  Teacher  Training  Schools. 
Yonkers:  World  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xvi+207.  Price  $2.25. 

3  W.  H.  Allen,  Self-Surveys  by  College  and  University.  Yonkers:  World  Book 
Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xv+494.  Price  $3.00. 


66 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


“general  surveys.”  To  each  type  of  book  the  educationist  has  been  very 
largely  committed  in  our  generation.  The  compiler  of  these  two  books  has 
adopted  devices,  however  (which  are  probably  new  to  educational  book¬ 
making),  which  should  contribute  to  much  action  on  the  part  of  the  school  and 
college  administrators  who  read  them.  The  devices  include  such  schemes  as: 
leaving  places  for  memoranda  by  readers  at  intervals  throughout  the  book; 
providing  for  the  answering  of  specific  questions  regarding  his  own  conditions 
by  the  reader;  the  reporting  of  contrasted  ways  of  doing  the  same  thing  with 
the  direct  question  to  the  reader,  “Do  you  do  it  thus  or  so?” 

On  fundamental  questions  of  a  constructive  sort,  concerning,  for  example, 
the  course  of  study,  this  method  is  frankly  limited,  as  all  such  “critical”  survey 
methods  are.  Its  excellence  is  confined  to  detailed  suggestions  for  the  criticism 
of  existing  conditions.  The  use  of  quantitative  technique,  which  has  been 
shown  to  be  the  necessary  tool  of  the  makers  of  all  the  sciences,  is  tabooed  by 
the  compiler  of  these  books.  He  would  make  use  of  the  comparative  method 
only  to  the  extent  that  he  would  quote  examples  of  procedure  in  various 
institutions.  All  methods  of  numerical  or  statistical  comparisons  are  declared 
to  be  useless. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  book  in  the  hands  of  normal  schools  and 
college  administrators  will  provide  a  powerful  impetus  for  improvement  of 
present  methods  of  administering  higher  official  work  in  this  country. 


2.  A  book  for  teachers  on  how  children  learn. — The  editor’s  introduction 
to  Professor  Freeman’s  How  Children  Learn 1  is  such  a  clear  description  and 
evaluation  of  his  second  book  on  learning  that  we  print  it  in  full  herewith: 

In  an  earlier  number  of  this  series  of  textbooks  the  author  of  the  present  volume 
presented  the  psychological  principles  underlying  good  teaching  of  the  so-called  com¬ 
mon-school  branches.  Instruction  in  handwriting,  drawing,  reading,  music,  spelling, 
history,  geography,  mathematics,  and  the  sciences  were  analyzed  into  types,  and  the 
lessons  of  psychology  applied  in  a  way  to  be  of  much  help  to  the  teacher  of  these 
subjects.  In  the  present  volume  the  author  takes  up  the  growth  of  the  child’s  mind 
and  shows  how  good  instruction  in  any  subject  and  in  all  parts  of  the  school  system 
must  be  founded  on  certain  general  applications  of  psychology  to  the  teaching  process. 
In  reading  through  the  work  here  presented  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  fully  all 
questions  as  to  proper  mental  development  of  children  are  related  to  the  psychology 
of  the  learning  process. 

The  present  volume  is  a  valuable  study  in  applied  psychology.  It  concerns  itself 
primarily  with  a  study  of  the  native  and  acquired  responses  of  children,  and  the  sig¬ 
nificance  of  these  for  educational  development  and  for  social  control.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  education  to  deal  with  these  native  responses  of  children,  stimulating  some  and 
repressing  others,  and  in  addition  to  develop  in  children  many  acquired  responses 
which  will  be  valuable  to  them  in  later  life.  In  the  development  of  the  idea  that 

1  F.  N.  Freeman,  How  Children  Learn.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1917. 
Pp.  xiv+317. 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


67 


education  means  the  training  of  the  child  to  respond  in  ways  which  society  has  approved 
and  men  have  found  useful,  the  author  analyzes  the  ways  of  responding  which  are 
both  native  and  acquired  with  children,  as  these  relate  to  their  play,  imitation  of 
others,  self-assertion,  social  attitudes,  use  of  language,  the  acquirement  of  skills, 
perceptions,  association  and  memorizing,  and  the  thinking  process.  He  then  formu¬ 
lates  the  general  principles  of  mental  growth  in  children,  devotes  a  chapter  to  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  much-debated  question  of  the  transfer  of  training,  and  concludes 
with  a  valuable  chapter  on  mental  economy  and  mental  hygiene.  In  a  sense  the 
volume  at  hand  is  a  textbook  in  educational  psychology,  revealing  to  teachers  and 
students  how  all  effective  instruction  of  children  must  be  founded  on  the  utilization 
and  development  of  the  child’s  native  and  acquired  responses  to  the  stimuli  of  our 
civilization. 

The  book  has  been  prepared  for  use  as  a  textbook  in  colleges  and  normal  schools 
and  for  use  as  a  reading-circle  book  with  teachers.  An  effort  has  been  made  by  the 
author  to  use  as  few  technical  terms  as  are  consistent  with  a  fair  degree  of  precision  of 
statement,  and  to  make  the  statement  of  general  or  abstract  principles  understand¬ 
able,  by  the  use  of  illustrations  from  familiar  experiences,  to  the  reader  who  has  not 
studied  psychology.  In  particular,  schoolroom  situations  have  been  used  continually 
as  the  chief  source  of  illustrations  and  applications.  It  is  confidently  believed  that 
this  new  volume  in  the  series  will  find  for  itself  a  large  field  of  usefulness. 

E.  P.  CUBBERLEY 


3.  A  high-school  text  on  general  science.1 — The  first  half  of  this  volume 
treats  of  elementary  chemistry,  the  latter  part  of  elementary  physics.  There 
is  a  smattering  of  biological  material  treated  from  the  standpoint  of  chemistry. 
The  first  chapter  deals  with  the  scientific  method.  Then  discussions  of 
“matter  and  its  forms,”  “properties  of  matter,”  “changes  in  matter,”  lead 
to  the  chemistry  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  water,  chlorine,  etc.  The  chapter 
headings  often  indicate  that  some  common  object  of  interest  is  taken  as  the 
point  of  departure  for  these  excursions  into  chemistry,  such  as:  “A  Pinch  of 
Salt,”  “A  Study  of  a  Match,”  “A  Cake  of  Soap,”  “The  Limestone  Story.” 
Chapter  xv  introduces  the  study  of  minerals,  rocks,  and  soils.  Chapter  xix, 
on  “The  Potato,”  is  the  only  one  with  a  title  suggestive  of  living  things. 
“Matter  and  Motion,”  “Sound,”  “Heat,”  “Light,”  “Electricity,”  “Work 
and  Energy,”  headings  of  later  chapters,  make  it  apparent  that  the  book  is 
following  closely  along  the  beaten  lines  of  high-school  physics. 

The  book  is  a  good  presentation  of  very  elementary  chemistry  and  physics, 
with  simple  experimental  exercises  written  in  a  clear  style  and  well  organized. 
There  is  an  occasional  incorrect  statement,  as  on  page  69,  “If  water  is  brought 
just  to  the  boiling  point  ....  the  germs  in  it  will  be  killed,”  and  again  in 
the  definition  of  granite,  page  156.  It  is  poor  policy  to  start  beginners  off 
with  incorrect  conceptions,  even  in  the  interest  of  simplicity,  as  is  done  in 
presenting  light  as  ether  waves  (p.  283)  or  electricity  as  a  fluid  (p.  323). 

1  Delos  Fall,  Science  for  Beginners ,  A  First  Book  in  General  Science.  Yonkers: 
World  Book  Co.  Pp.  ix+382. 


68 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


The  book  has  many  good  features.  It  attempts  drill  in  the  scientific 
method  of  thinking,  and  some  of  the  exercises  are  in  problem  form,  though  most 
of  them  are  demonstrations  of  facts  stated  in  the  text  and  afford  little  opportu¬ 
nity  for  reflective  thinking. 

Four  things,  at  least,  seem  essential  in  a  book  of  science  for  beginners: 
(i)  It  should  organize  common  experiences  into  generalizations,  (2)  proceeding 
in  a  way  to  make  such  work  conscious  drill  in  the  scientific  method  of  thinking. 
(3)  These  generalizations  should  be  few,  the  ones  most  important  in  the  life 
of  the  average  pupil.  (4)  There  must  be  much  drill  in  the  application  of  these 
few  principles  to  real  problems.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  chemical  material  is 
well  adapted  to  accomplish  these  aims.  To  illustrate,  it  seems  as  if  a  demon¬ 
stration  of  the  power  of  chlorine  to  kill  living  organisms  wrould  be  more  worth¬ 
while  than  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  antimony  combines  with  chlorine  with 
brilliant  sparks  (p.  84);  the  application  of  combustion  to  human  respiration 
or  to  the  manipulation  of  the  drafts  on  a  stove  might  better  occupy  space  than 
the  meaning  of  “id”  in  chemistry  (p.  49). 

The  book  impresses  one  as  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  an  enthusiastic 
chemist  to  pre-empt  some  time  in  the  first  year  science  for  his  favorite  subject. 


4.  History  readings. — To  the  writer’s  knowledge  Professor  Webster’s  book1 
is  the  only  book  of  readings  which  covers  both  the  mediaeval  and  modern 
fields  of  European  history.  Since  it  covers  the  two  fields,  it  will  be  of  great 
value  as  an  adjunct  to  a  high-school  course  in  mediaeval  and  modern  history. 
The  passages  quoted  are  long  enough  to  avoid  scrappiness  and  are  sufficiently 
concrete  to  hold  the  reader’s  interest  throughout.  Each  chapter  deals  with 
one  thing  and  presents  the  work  of  a  single  author,  thus  giving  it  a  unity. 

The  book  contains  thirty-five  chapters,  twenty-two  containing  material 
dealing  with  the  period  prior  to,  and  thirteen  with  the  period  since,  Martin 
Luther’s  time.  Heading  each  chapter  is  a  brief  explanatory  statement  relative 
to  the  author  and  the  work  quoted.  These  help  the  reader  to  see  what  opportu¬ 
nities  the  author  quoted  had  for  gaining  accurate  information.  They  also 
help  him  relate  the  material  quoted  to  the  period  of  history  under  consideration. 
The  book  can  be  profitably  used  in  a  number  of  ways.  Certain  chapters  may 
be  made  the  basis  for  simple  exercises  in  historical  method  if  enough  copies 
are  at  hand.  The  index  contains  topics  for  oral  reports,  to  which  use  much  of 
the  material  in  the  book  lends  itself.  Certain  chapters  in  the  book  furnish 
excellent  material  for  comparative  studies.  They  show  how  differently  the 
same  facts  are  often  viewed  by  different  men.  One  would  need  duplicate 
copies  to  make  such  a  use  of  the  book.  A  final  use  to  which  the  book  might 
be  put  is  for  illustrative  purposes  in  the  hands  of  teachers.  Many  of  the 

1  Hutton  Webster,  Readings  in  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History.  Chicago: 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1917. 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS  69 

extracts  lend  themselves  to  such  use.  They  are  short,  concrete,  and  to  the 
point. 

The  combination  topical  index  and  pronouncing  vocabulary  is  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  book  as  a  whole. 


5.  A  social  science  for  high  schools. — Mr.  Bennion’s  book1  is  the  outcome 
of  his  experience  in  teaching  ethics  to  college  Freshmen  and  Senior  high-school 
students.  It  is  made  up  of  two  parts:  Part  I  emphasizes  the  nature  of  society 
and  social  problems  and  Part  II  the  social  obligations  of  the  individual  and 
the  opportunities  society  offers  each  one  for  development  through  service. 

On  first  thought  the  social-science  teacher  might  feel  that  the  book  has  no 
interest  for  her.  Should  such  be  her  conclusion,  based  on  a  passing  notice  of 
the  book,  she  will  change  her  mind  upon  careful  reading.  A  mere  enumeration 
of  a  few  of  the  chapter  headings  will  emphasize  this  point:  “The  Function  of 
the  School,”  “Social  Institutions,”  “The  Conservation  of  National  Resources,” 
“The  Conservation  of  Human  Life,”  “Public  Regulation  of  Food  Markets,” 
“Vocations,”  “Business  Organizations,”  “The  School  Community,”  “The 
Suffrage,”  and  “Problems  of  the  City.” 

As  a  text  the  book  is  planned  for  use  in  the  Senior  year  of  the  high  school 
or  in  the  first  year  of  college.  There  are  thirty-four  chapters  in  the  book — 
enough  material  for  about  seventy  lessons.  At  the  end  of  the  book  there  are 
questions  and  exercises  based  on  each  chapter.  These  are  intended  to  supple¬ 
ment  the  discussion  in  the  chapter  and  to  stimulate  thoughtful  consideration 
of  social  problems.  By  making  free  use  of  these  questions  a  teacher  could 
make  the  book  the  basis  of  a  full  semester’s  work  in  social  problems. 

6.  A  new  high-school  history  reference  hook. — If  one  is  looking  for  a  masterly 
treatment  of  the  transition  from  mediaeval  to  modern  times,  such  will  be  found  in 
this  most  recent  book2  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Emerton,  which  has  for  the 
thread  of  its  narrative,  in  the  words  of  the  author,  “the  working  out,  con¬ 
sciously  in  literature  and  unconsciously  through  social  and  political  conflict, 
of  the  idea  that  individuals  or  bodies  of  men  voluntarily  united  in  a  common 
interest  might,  if  they  pleased,  speak  and  act  for  themselves.”  This  principle 
is  illustrated  throughout  the  book  by  means  of  the  most  striking  phenomena  of 
the  two  hundred  years  under  investigation. 

As  pointed  out  in  his  preface,  professor  Emerton  is  writing  of  a  period  in 
which  there  is  a  significant  change  in  every  field  of  human  effort;  a  period  in 
which  the  individual  begins  to  assert  his  rights,  the  spirit  of  inquiry  and 
assertions  begins  to  displace  a  timid  yielding  to  existing  authority,  uniformity 
of  life  begins  to  give  way  to  diversity,  and  general  ideas  begin  to  lose  their  hold. 

1  Milton  Bennion,  Citizenship ,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics.  Yonkers: 
World  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  181. 

2  Ephraim  Emerton,  The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Europe ,  1250-1450.  Chicago: 
Ginn  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  550. 


70 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


Since  all  of  these  ideas  have  become  so  deeply  imbedded  in  our  modem  life,  a 
history  of  their  origin  will  find  much  favor  at  the  present  time. 

Professor  Emerton  has  employed  the  topical  method  of  treatment.  His 
main  topics  are  indicated  by  his  ten  chapter  headings,  which  are:  “The  Prin¬ 
ciple  of  Our  Modern  State,”  “The  New  Empire,”  “The  New  Papacy,”  “The 
Rise  of  a  Middle  Class,”  The  Italian  Republics  of  1300,”  “The  Hundred  Years’ 
War,”  “The  Age  of  the  Councils,”  “The  Age  of  the  Despots  in  Italy,”  “The 
Renaissance  in  Italy,”  and  “The  Northern  Renaissance.”  Such  a  method 
involves  a  certain  amount  of  repetition,  which,  by  the  way,  is  beneficial  rather 
than  detrimental  in  this  case  by  showing  the  close  interrelation  of  the  historical 
movements  considered. 

The  book  contains  a  number  of  valuable  colored  maps.  The  system  of 
marginal  references  employed  is  a  great  aid  to  the  reader  by  keeping  an  out¬ 
line  always  before  him.  The  general  make-up  of  the  book  greatly  facilitates 
its  use  as  a  reference  in  history  classes  dealing  with  the  transition  from 
mediaeval  to  modern  history. 

7.  A  technical  study  of  high-school  abilities. — The  first  number  of  a  series 
of  studies  in  education  to  be  issued  by  the  department  of  education  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  has  just  appeared.1  Part  I  deals  with  the  coefficients  of 
correlation  existing  between  the  school  grades  of  121  graduates  of  the  Western 
High  School,  Baltimore.  Part  II  is  a  study  of  the  relation  between  the  results 
obtained  in  several  ability  tests  and  the  school  grades  of  30  pupils  in  the 
academic  course  and  29  in  the  commercial,  who  had  entered  the  school  in 
September,  1915. 

Of  necessity  the  writer  has  made  extensive  use  of  tables  and  the  coefficient 
of  correlation  (Pearson).  The  records  for  each  of  the  four  years  are  treated 
separately,  the  main  facts  in  each  year  being  given  in  a  summary  table  at  the 
end  of  each  section  and  a  summary  of  all  four  years  near  the  end  of  Part  I. 

Trabue’s  language  scales  L  and  M,  Whipple’s  word-opposite  test  lists  A  and 
B,  and  Whipple’s  cancellation  test  were  used  as  the  basis  for  the  discussion  in 
Part  II.  On  correlating  the  results  of  these  tests  with  the  school  grades  in  the 
various  subjects  the  author  reached  the  following  conclusion  for  the  study  as*a 
whole: 

1.  This  study  of  the  coefficients  of  correlation  among  school  grades  shows 
a  considerable  amount  of  correlation,  71  per  cent  of  all  the  coefficients  being 
equal  to  or  greater  than  0.3  and  41  per  cent  being  equal  to  or  greater  than  o.  5. 

2.  Drawing  ranks  lowest  among  all  the  subjects,  the  size  of  the  cooefficients 
being  taken  as  a  basis. 

3.  The  correlation,  as  found,  may  be  due  either  to  a  “spread  of  ability” 
or  to  resemblance  of  elements  among  the  several  school  subjects.  Since  draw¬ 
ing,  a  subject  very  unlike  the  other  ones,  shows  low  coefficients,  the  correlation 

1  D.  E.  Weglein,  The  Correlation  of  Abilities  of  High-School  Pupils.  The  Johns 
Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Education,  No.  1.  Baltimore:  Johns  Hopkins  Press, 
1917.  $1.25. 


EDUCATIONAL  WRITINGS 


71 


is  probably  due  to  resemblance  of  elements  among  the  subjects,  or  at  least  of 
those  things  counting  for  success  in  school. 

4.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  a  single  subject  as  the  basis  of  judgment  of  school 
progress,  English  is  probably  the  best  one  to  select  for  this  purpose. 


III.  CURRENT  EDUCATIONAL  PUBLICATIONS  RECEIVED 

IN  NOVEMBER 

(Detailed  discussions  of  some  of  the  following  books  will  appear  later.) 

A.  GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 

Allen,  William  H.  Self -Surveys  by  Colleges  and  Universities.  New  York: 
World  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  394. 

B.  PUBLICATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

Foght,  H.  W.  Rural-Teacher  Preparation  in  County  Training  Schools  and 
High  Schools.  Washington:  Government  Printing  Office,  1917.  Pp.  71. 
Roberts,  E.  L.  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools  in  Great  Britain.  Washington: 

Government  Printing  Office,  1917.  Pp.  69. 

Smith,  Anna  Tolman.  Demand  for  Vocational  Education  in  the  Countries  at 
War.  Washington:  Government  Printing  Office,  1917.  Pp.  16. 

Weeks,  Stephen  B.  History  of  Puilic-School  Education  in  Delaware.  Wash¬ 
ington:  Government  Printing  Office,  1917.  Pp.  181. 

C.  TEXTBOOKS  FOR  THE  ELEMENTARY  GRADES 

Fitzhugh,  Percy  Keese.  The  Boys'  Book  of  Scouts.  Illustrated.  New 
York:  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co.,  1917.  8vo,  pp.  ix+317.  $1.25. 

Long,  Augustus  White.  American  Patriotic  Prose.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xv+389. 

McSpadden,  J.  Walker.  The  Book  of  Holidays.  New  York:  Thomas  Y. 
Crowell  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  309. 

Rankin,  Jean  Sherwood.  Mechanics  of  Written  English.  Illustrated. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.:  Augsburg  Publishing  House,  1917.  Pp.  ix-f-167. 
Southworth,  Gertrude  V.,  and  Paine,  Paul  Mayo.  Bugle  Calls  of  Liberty. 

Syracuse,  N.Y.:  Iroquois  Publishing  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  x+179. 

Thompson,  Jeannie  B.  The  Art  of  Teaching  Arithmetic.  New  York:  Long¬ 
mans,  Green,  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  viii+295.  $1.35. 

D.  TEXTBOOKS  FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Clute,  Willard  Nelson.  Experimental  General  Science.  With  96  illustra¬ 
tions.  Philadelphia:  P.  Blakiston’s  Son  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xv+303. 
Howe,  Samuel  Burnett.  Essentials  in  Early  European  History.  New  York: 
Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.,  1917.  4th  ed.  Pp.  xii-f-436.  $1.50. 


72 


THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW 


Johnson,  Burges.  The  Well  of  English,  and  the  Bucket.  Boston:  Little, 
Brown  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xi+149.  $1.25. 

Musgrove,  Eugene  R.  Composition  and  Literature.  New  York:  Longmans, 
Green,  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  viii+519.  $1.20. 

The  Yale  Shakespeare.  The  Tragedy  of  Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark.  Edited 
by  Jack  Randall  Craweord.  New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press, 
1917.  Pp.  203.  $0.50. 

The  Yale  Shakespeare.  The  Chronicle  History  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  King  Lear 
and  His  Three  Daughters.  Edited  by  William  Lyon  Phelps.  New 
Haven:  Yale  University  Press,  1917.  Pp.  154.  $0.50. 

FRENCH 

Olmsted,  Everett  Ward.  First  Course  in  French.  New  York:  Henry  Holt 
&  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xi+332. 

GERMAN 

Crandon,  Laura  B.  Ein  Anfangsbuch.  Illustrated.  “New-World  German 
Series.”  New  York:  World  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xii+306. 

Koenig,  Alfred  E.,  and  Myers,  Walter  R.  Kleine  deutsche  Grammatik. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.:  Perine  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xxix+96. 

Schmidt,  L.  M.,  and  Glokke,  E.  Das  erste  jahr  Deutsch.  “Heath’s  Modern 
Language  Series.”  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  xxix+282. 
$1.60. 

Storm,  Theodor.  Immensee.  Edited  by  Alma  S.  Fick.  New  York : 
Macmillan,  1917.  Pp.  xxiv-f-177.  $0.40. 

SPANISH 

Dorado,  Carolina  M.  Espaha  Pintoresca.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.,  1917. 
Pp.  x+332. 

Hall,  Guillermo.  Poco  a  poco.  “New-World  Spanish  Series.”  New  York: 
World  Book  Co.,  1917.  Pp.  viii+308. 

Warshaw,  J.  Viajando  por  Sud  America.  New  York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
1917.  Pp.  vii-J-226. 

E.  MISCELLANEOUS  PUBLICATIONS 

Alderman,  Edwin  A.  “The  Function  and  Needs  of  Schools  of  Education  in 
Universities  and  Colleges.”  New  York:  General  Education  Board,  1917. 
Occasional  Papers  No.  4.  Paper.  Pp.  31. 

Davis,  Henry  C.  “Debating  for  High  Schools.”  University  of  South 
Carolina,  Department,  1917,  No.  60.  Pp.  43.  Paper. 

“How  the  War  Came  to  America.”  Issued  by  the  Committee  on  Public 
Information.  June  15,  1917.  Pp.  31.  Paper. 

Luccock,  Halford  E.  Studies  in  the  Parables  of  Jesus.  New  York:  Abing¬ 
don  Press,  1917.  Pp.  131.  $0.50. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EDUCATIONAL 
MONOGRAPHS 

Edited  in  conjunction  with  The  School  Review  and 
The  Elementary  School  Journal 


Published  by  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 


VOL.  I 

Monograph  No.  1 

Studies  of  Elementary-School  Reading  through  Standardized 
Tests.  By  William  Scott  Gray,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Education  and  Dean  of  the  College  of  Education,  University  of 
Chicago.  Pp.viii+158 .  Price  $1.00. 

Monograph  No.  2 

An  Experimental  Study  in  the  Psychology  of  Reading.  By 
William  A.  Schmidt,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  University 
of  Oklahoma.  Pp.  iv+126.  Price  $0.75. 

Monograph  No.  3 

The  Administration  of  Secondary  -  School  Units.  By 
Leonard  V.  Koos,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of 
Washington.  Pp.  Price  $1.00. 

Monograph  No.  4 

Experimental  Studies  in  Arithmetic.  By  George  S. 
Counts,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of 
Delaware.  Pp.  iv+128.  Price  $0. 75. 

Monograph  No.  5 

Types  of  Reading  Ability  as  Exhibited  through  Tests  and 
Laboratory  Experiments.  An  Investigation  Subsidized  by  the 
General  Education  Board.  By  Clarence  Truman  Gray,  Ph.D., 
Adjunct  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Texas.  Pp. 
xiv+196.  Price  $1.25. 


Monograph  No.  6 


Survey  of  the  Kindergartens  of  Richmond,  Indiana.  By 
Alice  Temple,  Ed.B.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Kindergarten 
Education,  University  of  Chicago.  Pp.  iv-{-^8.  Price  $0.40. 

The  six  Monographs  listed  above  complete  Volume  I. 
Volume  II  of  the  Monographs  is  now  in  preparation  and  will 
be  published  during  1918  under  the  general  plan  adopted  for 
Volume  I.  The  price  will  be  the  same,  $5.00  plus  50  cents  for 
postage.  Or  they  may  be  obtained  with  a  year’s  subscription  to 
The  School  Review  and  The  Elementary  School  Journal  at  a 
special  combination  price  of  $6.50. 


SUBSCRIPTION  RATES 


$1.50  a  year 

1.50"  “ 

5.00  per  volume 


The  School  Review 

The  Elementary  School  Journal 

The  Monographs  - 


Postage  50  cents  extra 

The  Monographs  are  issued  in  single  numbers  which  may  be  pur¬ 
chased  separately.  For  convenience  in  binding  and  reference  they 
are  listed  as  numbers  within  a  volume. 

A  combination  of  all  three  publications  is  offered  for  $6.00  plus  50  cents 
postage  on  the  Monographs. 


Reference  Books  for  Religious  Education 


THE  CHILD  AND  HIS  RELIGION.  By  George  E.  Dawson. 

The  aim  of  the  book  is  to  suggest  the  principal  elements  in  the  child’s  religious  nature  and 
training.  The  first  chapter  treats  of  interest  as  the  fundamental  dynamic  factor  in  life  and 
growth.  The  second  chapter  considers  the  child’s  natural  religious  reactions  to  its  environing 
world  as  modes  of  such  interest.  The  third  chapter  gives  the  results  of  an  inductive  study  of 
children’s  interest  in  the  Bible.  And  the  fourth  chapter  applies  the  principles  thus  brought  to 
light  to  the  general  problem  of  religious  education. 

x-\-124  pages,  12mo,  cloth;  75  cents,  postage  extra  ( weight  14  ox.) 

HANDWORK  IN  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION.  By  Addie  Grace  Wardie. 

All  lesson  series  today  include  some  handwork  for  small  children,  but  this  is  the  first  vol¬ 
ume  presenting  a  scientific  study  of  handwork  in  religious  and  moral  education,  not  only  for 
young  children,  but  also  for  growing  boys  and  girls,  even  through  the  adolescent  years.  There 
are  discussions  on  work  with  Reed’s  rafia,  cardboard,  pictures,  crayon,  symbolic  forms  in  paper¬ 
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THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  RELIGION.  By  George  Albert  Coe. 

Of  nineteen  chapters,  the  first  four  are  devoted  to  aspects  of  psychological  study  and  in¬ 
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THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  HEBREW  RELIGION.  By  Henry 

Thatcher  Fowler. 

This  textbook  presents  the  fascinating  story  of  the  genesis  of  Israel’s  religion  and  its  long, 
steady  development  to  the  religious  idealism  of  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Jeremiah.  It  is  so  inter¬ 
esting  that  college  students,  church  classes  of  adults  and  young  people,  and  Y.M.C.A.  and 
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xvi-\-184  pages,  12mo,  cloth;  $1.00  net,  postage  extra  ( weight  13  ox.) 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  By  Edgar  Johnson  Goodspeed. 

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160  pages,  12mo,  cloth;  $1.00,  postage  extra  ( weight  1  lb.) 

GRADED  SOCIAL  SERVICE  FOR  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL.  By  William 

Norman  Hutchins. 

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holds  also  for  graded  social  service.  He  discusses  the  whole  problem  of  social  activity  in  a 
thoroughly  scientific  way,  and  establishes  fundamental  principles  upon  the  basis  of  which 
teachers  may  originate  a  program  for  themselves. 

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TO  BE  PUBLISHED  IN  JANUARY 

The  Third  and  Fourth  Generation 

An  Introduction  to  Heredity 

By  ELLIOT  R.  DOWNING 

Associate  Professor  of  Natural  Science  in  the  School  of  Education , 

The  University  of  Chicago 


nrrrpTHi^  generation  science  has  acquired  much 
accurate  knowledge  regarding  the  phenomena  of 
heredity  and  the  laws  governing  them.  Already 
this  new  information  has  been  applied  by  the  plant 
and  animal  breeder  with  important  economic 
results.  It  has  probably  even  greater  value  in  its  application 
to  human  parenthood  and  the  problems  of  racial  betterment. 
It  is,  then,  information  that  should  be  familiar  to  all  people, 
not  merely  to  the  scientist. 


This  volume  presents  the  essential  things  in  these  dis¬ 
coveries  in  language  simple  enough  for  those  of  high-school 
age;  yet  it  gives  to  the  mature  person  a  grasp  of  the  subject 
that  will  satisfy  the  average  lay  reader. 

The  selected  bibliography  affords  reference  to  more 
detailed  discussions. 


Suitable  as  a  textbook  for  classes  of  young  people  in 
Sunday  school,  high  school,  and  college. 

Of  interest  to  the  general  reader. 


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The  Life  of 

Lieutenant  General  Chaffee 

:  -  :  .  S' 

By  Major  General  William  Harding  Carter 

Commanding  the  Central  Department 

This  is  the  biography  of  one  of  America’s 
great  soldiers — the  ojnly  man  who  ever  rose 
from  the  rank  of  private  in  the  Regular  Army 
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General  Chaffee  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Civil  War,  and  at 
,  its  close  held  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant.  He  engaged  in  the 
Indian  Wars  of  the  Southwest.  He  took  part  in  the  Santiago 
campaign,  which  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish  forces. 

He  led  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  sent  to  the  relief  of  the 
besieged  legations  in  China  at  the  time  of  the  Boxer  uprising. 

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William  Howard  Taft  was  civil  governor.  He  rounded  out  the 
closing  years  of  active  service  as  Chief  of  Staff  of  the  United 
States  Army — the  highest  military  position. 

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